Work–Life Flexibility for Whom? Occupational Status and Work–Life Inequality in Upper, Middle, and Lower Level Jobs

Abstract

We define work–life flexibility as employment-scheduling practices that are designed to give employees greater control over when, where, how much, or how continuously work is done. Research has underexamined how work–life flexibility is stratified across occupations. We review how occupational status and flexibility experiences vary and shape work–life inequality, which we identify as a form of job inequality. We investigate the range of definitions, measurement approaches, and theorizing regarding work–life flexibility. We find that employees across occupational groups experience different work–life flexibility outcomes from different flexibility types. Providing employee control over scheduling variation (flextime) may benefit lower level workers the most, yet many are unable to access this flexibility form. Part-time work permitting control over work volume/workload hurts lower level employees the most (because of involuntary income and benefits loss). Yet, these same part-time practices enhance recruitment and retention for upper level jobs but harm promotion and pay. Work continuity control (leaves) benefits upper- and middle-level employees but is largely unavailable to lower level workers. Flexibility to control work location is rarely available for lower level jobs; but benefits middle- and upper level employees, provided that individuals are able to control separation from work when desired and self-regulate complexity. We offer implications for research and practice.