Table of Contents
Overview
Definition and Symptoms
COVID-19, which stands for "coronavirus disease 2019," is an infectious disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. This virus first appeared in late 2019 and quickly spread around the world, leading to a global pandemic.[3.1] Most individuals infected with the virus will experience mild to moderate respiratory illness and typically recover without requiring specialized treatment.[2.1] However, certain populations, particularly older adults and those with underlying health conditions such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, chronic respiratory diseases, or cancer, are at a higher risk of developing severe illness and may require medical attention.[2.1] Additionally, there are different variants of the virus that can spread more easily and may cause more severe illness than the original strain.[3.1] COVID-19 is an infectious disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Symptoms of COVID-19 can vary widely among individuals, with most people experiencing mild to moderate respiratory illness and recovering without requiring special treatment. Common symptoms include fever, cough, and difficulty breathing, which may appear 2-14 days after exposure to the virus. In addition to respiratory symptoms, some individuals may experience fatigue, muscle or body aches, loss of taste or smell, sore throat, congestion or runny nose, nausea or vomiting, and diarrhea. It is important to note that while many people experience mild symptoms, others may develop severe complications that necessitate hospitalization, particularly older adults and those with underlying medical conditions such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, chronic respiratory disease, or cancer.[2.1]Transmission and Spread
SARS-CoV-2, a novel severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-like coronavirus, is responsible for the global pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).[7.1] Understanding how SARS-CoV-2 enters human cells is crucial for deciphering its mechanisms and curbing its spread.[7.1] The virus's entry into cells is mediated by its surface spike protein, which binds to the ACE2 (Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2) receptor in humans through its receptor-binding domain.[6.1] This binding is further facilitated by the proteolytic activation of the spike protein by human proteases, including proprotein convertase furin, which enhances the virus's ability to infect cells.[6.1] Therefore, comprehending these mechanisms is vital for developing effective strategies for diagnosis, treatment, and vaccine development.[5.1] The dynamics of infection transmission and the concept of herd immunity are essential for understanding and managing the COVID-19 pandemic. Herd immunity is defined as the herd immunity threshold, which is the point at which the proportion of susceptible individuals falls below the threshold needed for transmission.[18.1] This threshold is influenced by various factors, including the infectiousness of the virus and the dynamics of contact within the population. The relationship between healthy individuals, those susceptible to infection, and infected individuals is mathematically related to the propagation and infection tendencies of the virus.[17.1] The rapid growth rate of COVID-19 continues to pose significant challenges, threatening to overwhelm healthcare systems in multiple countries. In response, severely affected nations have implemented a range of public health strategies through nonpharmaceutical interventions to control outbreaks.[16.1] The application of immunoepidemiology and herd immunology can provide valuable insights into the effectiveness and limitations of these strategies in the context of the ongoing pandemic.[15.1] Mutations in the SARS-CoV-2 virus, particularly in the spike protein, have been shown to enhance transmissibility and contribute to immune evasion, complicating public health responses and vaccine effectiveness.[29.1] Variants such as Alpha, Beta, Delta, and Omicron have emerged, necessitating ongoing surveillance to assess their impact on transmission dynamics and vaccine efficacy.[28.1] The interaction between these mutations and the immune response is critical for understanding the virus's behavior and informing public health strategies. Demographic factors, particularly age structure, play a crucial role in the transmission dynamics of COVID-19. Research has highlighted the impact of different age classes, including children (0-14 years), adults (15-64 years), and older individuals (over 64 years), on the spread of COVID-19 cases over time in high-burden countries.[39.1] Understanding these dynamics is essential for governments and health authorities to devise effective strategies aimed at mitigating the pandemic's detrimental effects.[41.1] Furthermore, the interactions between various age groups significantly influence the effectiveness of public health measures, such as lockdowns, in reducing hospitalizations and critical care cases.[42.1] Therefore, it is imperative to consider age demographics when implementing public health interventions to effectively manage the pandemic.History
Origins and Early Cases
The origins of COVID-19 can be traced back to Wuhan, People's Republic of China, where the first human cases were reported on or about 17 November 2019.[44.1] By late November 2019, the disease had begun to spread within Wuhan, leading to a significant outbreak.[45.1] The World Health Organization (WHO) recognized the severity of the situation and declared the outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) on 30 January 2020, subsequently labeling it a pandemic on 11 March 2020.[46.1] The first confirmed human case in the United States occurred on 19 January 2020. The WHO ended the PHEIC on 5 May 2023, marking a significant milestone in the timeline of the pandemic, which officially started in March 2020 and concluded in May 2023.[44.1] The rapid global transmission of COVID-19 can be attributed to several epidemiological factors, including its highly infectious nature, as the virus is primarily transmitted through droplets released by infected individuals and contact persons.[50.1] Additionally, risk factors for severe COVID-19, such as age, obesity, and immunosuppression, varied significantly across different regions, influencing the overall spread of the disease.[49.1] The built environment, including population density and household structures, also played a crucial role in transmission dynamics, with variations observed not only between countries but also within them.[49.1] Furthermore, the emergence of variants of concern, such as Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Omicron, has been associated with increased transmissibility, although these variants exhibited trends of decreased virulence.[51.1] This combination of factors has contributed to the unprecedented scale of COVID-19's spread in human history.[51.1]Global Response and Pandemic Declaration
In December 2019, a novel strain of coronavirus was first identified in Wuhan, Hubei, China. This outbreak was officially recognized as a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) on March 11, 2020, which subsequently led to significant global socioeconomic disruption as countries implemented drastic measures to suppress the spread of the virus.[48.1] One of the major challenges faced during the early stages of the pandemic was the role of asymptomatic carriers in the transmission of COVID-19. Asymptomatic individuals, who display no clinical symptoms, were found to be contagious and contributed significantly to the propagation of the virus. Recent evidence indicated that this sub-population, along with those with mild disease, often escaped detection by public health surveillance systems, complicating efforts to control the outbreak.[68.1] The viral load in asymptomatic carriers was comparable to that of symptomatic patients, with viral shedding peaking before the onset of symptoms, suggesting a high potential for transmission prior to symptom development.[70.1] Mathematical models have illustrated that underestimating the fraction of asymptomatic carriers could lead to ineffective public health policies that rely solely on isolating confirmed infectious cases, thereby exacerbating the crisis.[69.1] The emergence of asymptomatic carriers of SARS-CoV-2 presented significant challenges for public health responses during the COVID-19 pandemic. Asymptomatic individuals, who test positive for the virus through polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing, pose a risk of spreading the infection without being identified as infected.[71.1] This phenomenon highlighted the complexities of controlling the pandemic, as asymptomatic cases were among the most intractable problems faced by health authorities.[67.1] The potential for asymptomatic transmission necessitated a reevaluation of public health policies to effectively address the challenges posed by these carriers and to mitigate the overall impact on global health systems.[71.1]Recent Advancements
Vaccine Development and Distribution
In September 2023, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved and authorized updated mRNA COVID-19 vaccines formulated to better target currently circulating variants, specifically the Omicron variant XBB.1.5. This decision was made based on a comprehensive evaluation of evidence and expert advice, indicating that these vaccines would provide enhanced protection against severe outcomes of COVID-19, including hospitalization and death.[91.1] The updated vaccines are manufactured by ModernaTX Inc. and Pfizer Inc. and are designed to include a monovalent component that corresponds to the prevalent variant.[91.1] Individuals aged five and older are eligible to receive a single dose of the updated vaccine at least two months after their last COVID-19 vaccine dose, regardless of their previous vaccination status.[91.1] The FDA anticipates that these updated vaccines will offer good protection against COVID-19 from currently circulating variants.[91.1] As countries plan their vaccination strategies for 2023, considerations include the epidemiological context, the effectiveness of prior vaccinations, and the potential availability of new vaccines. The World Health Organization (WHO) has also updated its Roadmap for prioritizing vaccine use, recommending a simplified vaccination schedule that focuses on high-priority groups in light of high population immunity from previous vaccinations and infections.[102.1] Despite the widespread availability of COVID-19 vaccinations in wealthy countries, many individuals remain unvaccinated. In the United States, as of December 2022, 72.9% of adults were fully vaccinated with two doses, while only 13.5% were up to date with booster doses, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2022).[105.1] This situation underscores the importance of developing new communication campaigns to promote COVID-19 vaccination and to address the ongoing challenges of vaccine hesitancy.[104.1] As federal and local officials consider the allocation of funding and resources for future COVID-19 prevention efforts, it is crucial to objectively evaluate the effectiveness of past vaccination campaigns to inform strategies for managing future outbreaks.[104.1] The current epidemiological landscape of COVID-19 remains uncertain, particularly as the winter season approaches, which traditionally sees increased viral activity. Many European countries have recommended spring vaccination campaigns to bolster immunity ahead of potential outbreaks.[103.1] Furthermore, while the latest mRNA vaccines are designed to target the XBB.1.5 strain, they are also expected to provide protection against its close relatives, such as EG.5 and BA.2.86, which are currently circulating.[108.1]Treatment Strategies and Research
The COVID-19 pandemic has prompted significant advancements in treatment strategies and ongoing research aimed at combating the disease. A comprehensive review highlights that numerous promising anti-SARS-CoV-2 drug candidates have entered clinical evaluation, providing hope for effective therapies against COVID-19.[88.1] As of now, several small-molecule antiviral drugs, including nirmatrelvir–ritonavir, remdesivir, and molnupiravir, along with 11 monoclonal antibodies, have been marketed for the treatment of COVID-19, primarily requiring administration within 10 days of symptom onset.[94.1] The landscape of COVID-19 management has evolved considerably since the early days of the pandemic. Initially, treatment decisions were largely based on extrapolated data from in vitro studies and case reports. However, clinicians are now equipped with a range of therapies supported by high-quality evidence, which has significantly improved patient management.[93.1] Ongoing multicenter clinical trials are crucial for establishing effective therapies and vaccines, as more evidence is needed to validate the efficacy of various antiviral drugs.[87.1] Moreover, the pandemic has underscored the importance of rapid advancements in diagnostic technology. The two primary methods for detecting SARS-CoV-2 infection—molecular and serological tests—remain effective regardless of the viral variant.[89.1] However, challenges have arisen in maintaining the effectiveness of these tests as the virus evolves, particularly in the United States, where initial testing capacities were limited.[100.1] The strain on testing systems during the pandemic has highlighted the need for continuous adaptation of testing algorithms and result interpretations as our understanding of the virus and diagnostics improves.[99.1]Long Covid
Definition and Symptoms (instance 7)
Long COVID, also known as post COVID-19 syndrome, is characterized by a collection of symptoms that persist for three months or longer following the initial COVID-19 infection. This condition can manifest in various ways, affecting individuals differently, and is not limited to those who experienced severe illness during their acute infection. Symptoms may include extreme fatigue, shortness of breath, cognitive difficulties often referred to as "brain fog," heart palpitations, dizziness, joint pain, and muscle aches. Other reported symptoms encompass loss of smell, chest pain, insomnia, anxiety, and gastrointestinal issues such as diarrhea and stomach aches.[132.1] Long COVID, also known as post-COVID-19 syndrome, is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a condition where symptoms persist or recur three months after the initial infection with SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19.[129.1] These symptoms can include fatigue, shortness of breath, and cognitive problems, and they can significantly impact an individual's daily functioning and quality of life.[129.1] Importantly, anyone who has had a SARS-CoV-2 infection, including children, can experience long COVID, regardless of the severity of their initial symptoms.[131.1] Research has identified over 200 different symptoms associated with long COVID, underscoring the complexity and variability of this condition.[130.1] Furthermore, there is currently no laboratory test available to confirm whether symptoms are due to long COVID, and individuals experiencing these symptoms are encouraged to seek care from healthcare providers to develop a personal medical management plan.[131.1] As the understanding of long COVID evolves, it is recognized that the underlying mechanisms contributing to its symptoms are still being studied. Current hypotheses suggest that immune dysregulation, endothelial dysfunction, and other biological factors may play a role in the persistence of symptoms following the acute phase of the infection.[139.1]Management and Support Strategies
Management of Long COVID involves addressing the multifaceted challenges faced by patients, particularly in accessing healthcare and receiving appropriate support. Long COVID, also known as post-COVID-19 condition (PCC), presents a range of symptoms that can persist long after the initial infection has resolved, including fatigue, cognitive dysfunction, and other neurological symptoms.[145.1] Patients with Long COVID face significant challenges in accessing healthcare, which can hinder their recovery and exacerbate their conditions. Research indicates that many individuals report difficulties in navigating the healthcare system, leading to feelings of disempowerment and frustration.[140.1] Primary care serves as the initial point of contact for these patients; however, there is a noted deficiency in the quality of care and understanding of Long COVID among healthcare providers.[144.1] To enhance care delivery and improve long-term outcomes, it is crucial to explore the barriers to access and identify effective strategies for addressing these challenges.[142.1] Expectations for care among Long COVID patients align with those for general primary care, emphasizing the need for multidisciplinary, holistic services that ensure continuity of care and clear clinical responsibility.[143.1] Patients express a desire for comprehensive support that addresses both physical and emotional health needs, highlighting the importance of a coordinated approach to management.[143.1] Emerging treatment strategies are also being explored to alleviate the symptoms associated with Long COVID. For instance, low-dose naltrexone has shown promise in improving symptoms such as fatigue and cognitive dysfunction.[164.1] Additionally, immunomodulatory therapies, such as baricitinib, are under investigation for their potential to enhance neurocognitive and physical function in patients suffering from Long COVID.[158.1] These treatments aim to target the underlying neuroinflammation that may contribute to cognitive decline and other persistent symptoms.[165.1]In this section:
Public Health Guidelines
Prevention Measures
Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, public health guidelines have evolved significantly to address the changing landscape of the virus and its impact on communities. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) provided guidance specific to COVID-19, which was initially detailed and tailored for various settings. As the pandemic progressed through 2022 and 2023, the CDC revised its recommendations based on the latest scientific evidence and the evolving nature of the pandemic.[166.1] Similarly, the World Health Organization (WHO) developed 21 guideline updates on mask use between January 2020 and October 2023, emphasizing the urgent need for high-quality guidelines during health emergencies.[167.1] The pandemic has also highlighted long-standing challenges in public health, particularly regarding racial and socioeconomic inequities in healthcare access and outcomes. Health departments have played a foundational role in the pandemic response, yet they faced numerous challenges, including gaps in information technology and the politicization of public health guidance.[168.1] This context underscores the importance of community engagement in addressing health disparities. Effective public health policies that promote access to healthcare for marginalized communities, such as Native Hawaiian, Pacific Islander, and Tribal populations, have been crucial in reducing disparities.[169.1] Culturally tailored health interventions have emerged as a vital strategy for improving health outcomes. These interventions are designed to align with the specific cultural values and practices of target populations, recognizing that health behaviors are deeply rooted in cultural contexts.[171.1] Community-based participatory research has also been instrumental in fostering collaboration between community members and researchers, enhancing the relevance of health interventions and promoting equity.[170.1] The rapid spread of COVID-19 and the evolving evidence surrounding its mitigation have led to confusion regarding public health guidelines, particularly concerning mask usage.[174.1] Data has been essential in understanding the disease's spread and the effectiveness of various interventions, yet challenges in data publication have complicated the response efforts.[175.1] Community engagement strategies have evolved throughout the pandemic, emphasizing the need for elevated health literacy and trust to ensure compliance with public health guidelines. Innovative strategies, such as the Community Research Advisory Council (C-RAC) at Johns Hopkins University, have promoted community engagement in research and public health initiatives.[177.1] Collaborative efforts among public health agencies, healthcare professionals, and underserved communities have been crucial in creating culturally adapted communication about COVID-19 vaccines, thereby enhancing vaccine confidence and acceptance.[179.1]In this section:
Variants And Surveillance
Emergence of Variants
The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants has been significantly influenced by mutations within the spike (S) protein, which enhance transmissibility and confer resistance to antibody-mediated neutralization. These mutations undermine the efficacy of traditional vaccine platforms, posing urgent challenges for controlling the COVID-19 pandemic.[218.1] Variants of concern, including alpha, beta, gamma, and delta, have acquired specific patterns of mutations that enhance their transmissibility and ability to evade immune responses. Notably, these mutations occur in critical regions such as the N-terminal domain (NTD) and the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the spike glycoprotein.[220.1] The emergence of variants in SARS-CoV-2 is significantly influenced by mutations within the spike (S) protein, which have been shown to enhance transmissibility and confer resistance to antibody-mediated neutralization, thereby undermining the efficacy of traditional vaccine platforms.[217.1] For instance, the Delta variant (B.1.617.2) carries the L452R mutation, which improves binding to the ACE2 receptor, contributing to increased transmissibility and resistance to mRNA-based vaccines from various manufacturers.[219.1] This process of mutation and selection of successful variants is referred to as "virus evolution," where some mutations can lead to changes in the virus's characteristics, such as altered transmission and severity of disease.[233.1] The rapid molecular evolution of the S protein under selective immune pressure results in the emergence of diverse variants, each exhibiting distinct traits that may enhance their infectivity or severity.[217.1] Understanding the functional effects of these mutations is critical, as they can lead to significant changes in the virus's behavior, including altered transmission dynamics and disease severity.[233.1] The World Health Organization (WHO) has categorized these variants based on their genomic mutations, transmissibility, disease severity, and ability to evade immune responses elicited by vaccines or therapeutic treatments.[235.1] As genomic surveillance continues to evolve, it provides valuable insights into the transmission effects of these variants, allowing for more effective public health responses.[236.1]Genomic Surveillance Efforts
Genomic surveillance efforts have played a pivotal role in tracking the evolution of SARS-CoV-2 and identifying emerging variants that may impact public health. A comprehensive surveillance system is essential for monitoring virus evolution over time, as it enables the identification of variants that could affect the performance of diagnostics, therapeutics, or vaccines, as well as those that may influence the transmissibility or severity of COVID-19.[205.1] The accumulation of mutations in the virus leads to the emergence of variants with different attributes, making genomic surveillance crucial for informing public health responses.[206.1] Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, the World Health Organization (WHO) has designated multiple COVID-19 Variants of Concern (VOCs) and Variants of Interest (VOIs) based on their potential to spread and replace prior variants, as well as their implications for public health measures.[207.1] It is critical to maintain global systems that can detect signals of potential VOIs or VOCs and assess the risks they pose to public health in a timely manner.[208.1] Genomic sequencing has been instrumental in mapping viral transmission at both global and local levels, informing infection control measures, and identifying new variants.[223.1] The integration of genomic data has allowed for real-time tracking of how pathogens evolve, enabling public health officials to adjust control strategies based on the emergence of variants with enhanced transmissibility or immune evasion capabilities.[210.1] Continuous genomic surveillance, coupled with advanced computational modeling, is vital for predicting the evolutionary trajectories of SARS-CoV-2 variants, thereby informing public health strategies, vaccine updates, and therapeutic interventions.[212.1] However, challenges remain in ensuring the accuracy and reliability of surveillance data. Variations in surveillance practices among public health agencies can lead to inconsistencies in data analysis and reporting.[215.1] Moreover, issues such as outcome misclassification and underreporting due to asymptomatic infections complicate the interpretation of surveillance data.[214.1] To address these challenges, a robust and sustainable infrastructure for genomic surveillance is necessary, which includes clinical sample collection, viral genotyping, and effective communication with public health agencies.[216.1] Recent advancements in sequencing technologies have significantly enhanced the ability to detect and monitor emerging variants of SARS-CoV-2, resulting in more genomic surveillance for this virus than any other pathogen to date.[222.1] These advancements facilitate efficient identification and characterization of variants in near real-time, which is critical for adapting public health responses to the evolving pandemic landscape.[224.1]Societal Impact
Economic Consequences
The COVID-19 pandemic has had profound economic consequences globally, leading to significant disruptions in various sectors. In 2020, the first year of the pandemic, the global economy contracted by approximately 3 percent, marking a historic decline and resulting in an increase in global poverty for the first time in a generation.[247.1] The economic shutdowns necessitated by the pandemic created dire circumstances for millions of workers, particularly affecting marginalized communities, including Black and Hispanic populations, who faced disproportionate impacts due to existing systemic inequalities.[264.1] The pandemic highlighted vulnerabilities within the agricultural labor force, where workers, often essential to food supply chains, were at increased risk of exposure to COVID-19. This sector experienced higher infection rates compared to other occupational groups, exacerbating existing inequities in health and working conditions.[253.1] Agricultural workers, who frequently face high levels of working poverty and lack adequate safety protections, were particularly affected as they continued to work amidst local outbreaks.[248.1] The pandemic underscored the need for targeted policies to address these vulnerabilities and improve the working conditions of essential laborers.[252.1] The economic consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic were particularly severe for low-income families, many of whom were already facing economic vulnerabilities prior to the crisis. In the early months of the pandemic, tens of millions of individuals lost their jobs, leading to significant hardships for families who struggled to pay rent, household bills, and provide food for their members.[269.1] This situation highlighted the need for increased policy attention to the social, economic, and political determinants of health, particularly for vulnerable populations.[268.1] Furthermore, it is essential to address the root causes and conditions of systemic inequalities based on race, gender, disability, and economic status, which were exacerbated by the pandemic.[265.1] These insights underscore the importance of reevaluating economic policies to better support marginalized communities and implement follow-up interventions that strengthen social protection systems.[268.1] The pandemic also brought to light the importance of reducing social and economic inequality as a means to promote mental health and societal resilience in the face of future crises.[266.1] As policymakers reflect on the lessons learned from the economic policies implemented during the pandemic, there is a clear imperative to strengthen social protection measures and safeguard the well-being of vulnerable populations.[268.1]Mental Health Considerations
The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted mental health across various demographics, exacerbating existing issues and creating new challenges. The initial impact of the virus was severe, particularly for vulnerable populations such as older adults, the unvaccinated, and those with chronic health conditions, leading to increased mortality rates and heightened mental health concerns among these groups.[249.1] As the pandemic progressed, the importance of social support systems became increasingly evident. Research indicates that a person's support network can either mitigate or exacerbate mental health issues, with nursing students being particularly affected due to the dual pressures of academic demands and the pandemic.[274.1] Quarantine measures, while effective in controlling the virus's spread, also contributed to the development of mental health problems, highlighting the critical role of social support and resilience during periods of isolation.[275.1] Communities emerged as vital sources of support during the crisis, fostering a sense of shared identity and solidarity that facilitated prosocial responses.[277.1] Local networks formed in response to geographic restrictions, leading to increased neighborly support and volunteering, which in turn improved relationship quality among community members.[276.1] Coordinated community efforts were shown to enhance psychological bonding and community identification, ultimately leading to improved well-being and reduced levels of depression and anxiety.[278.1] The pandemic has reshaped our understanding of social support systems, emphasizing the need for community solidarity in addressing mental health challenges. The collective efforts of communities not only provided immediate assistance but also contributed to long-term resilience and recovery, underscoring the importance of fostering strong social connections in times of crisis.[278.1]References
[2] Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) - World Health Organization (WHO) — Select language Donate Donate Home Health Topics All topics A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Resources Fact sheets Facts in pictures Multimedia Podcasts Publications Questions and answers Tools and toolkits Popular Dengue Endometriosis Excessive heat Herpes Mental disorders Mpox Countries All countries A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Regions Africa Americas Europe Eastern Mediterranean South-East Asia Western Pacific WHO in countries Data by country Country presence Country strengthening Country cooperation strategies Newsroom All news News releases Statements Campaigns Events Feature stories Press conferences Speeches Commentaries Photo library Headlines Emergencies Focus on Cholera Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) Greater Horn of Africa Israel and occupied Palestinian territory Mpox Sudan Ukraine Latest Disease Outbreak News Situation reports Weekly Epidemiological Record WHO in emergencies Surveillance Operations Research Funding Partners Health emergency appeal International Health Regulations Independent Oversight and Advisory Committee Data Data at WHO Data hub Global Health Estimates Mortality Health inequality Dashboards Triple Billion Progress Health Inequality Monitor Delivery for impact COVID-19 dashboard Data collection Classifications SCORE Surveys Civil registration and vital statistics Routine health information systems Harmonized health facility assessment GIS centre for health Reports World Health Statistics UHC global monitoring report About WHO About WHO Partnerships Committees and advisory groups Collaborating centres Technical teams Organizational structure Who we are Our work Activities Initiatives General Programme of Work WHO Academy Funding Investment in WHO WHO Foundation Accountability External audit Financial statements Internal audit and investigations Programme Budget Results reports Governance Governing bodies World Health Assembly Executive Board Member States Portal There is a current outbreak of Coronavirus (COVID-19) disease Find out more → Home/ Health topics/ Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) WHO © Credits Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) Overview Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Most people infected with the virus will experience mild to moderate respiratory illness and recover without requiring special treatment. However, some will become seriously ill and require medical attention. Older people and those with underlying medical conditions like cardiovascular disease, diabetes, chronic respiratory disease, or cancer are more likely to develop serious illness.
[3] Patient education: COVID-19 overview (The Basics) - UpToDate — What is COVID-19? COVID-19 stands for "coronavirus disease 2019." It is caused by a virus called SARS-CoV-2. The virus first appeared in late 2019 and quickly spread around the world. There are different "variants," or strains, of the virus that causes COVID-19. Some variants seem to spread more easily than the original virus. Certain variants might also make people sicker than others. In the
[5] 13.2 How Does SARS-Cov-2 Infect Humans? - Introduction to Genetics — In order to develop effective strategies to diagnose, treat, and manage this disease, it is vital to understand exactly how SARS-CoV-2 enters human cells. The virus' surface spike protein mediates SARS-CoV-2 entry into cells by binding to the ACE2 (Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2) receptor in humans through its receptor-binding domain and is proteolytically activated by human Read more »
[6] 13.8.2: How Does SARS-Cov-2 Infect Humans ... - Biology LibreTexts — The virus' surface spike protein mediates SARS-CoV-2 entry into cells by binding to the ACE2 (Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2) receptor in humans through its receptor-binding domain and is proteolytically activated by human proteases. Cell entry of SARS-CoV-2 is preactivated by proprotein convertase furin, reducing its dependence on target
[7] Cell entry mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 - PubMed — A novel severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-like coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) is causing the global coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Understanding how SARS-CoV-2 enters human cells is a high priority for deciphering its mystery and curbing its spread. A virus surface spike protein mediates SARS-CoV-2 entry into cells.
[15] Dynamics of Population Immunity Due to the Herd Effect in the COVID-19 ... — In this review, we present the basis of herd immunology, the dynamics of infection transmission that induces specific immunity, and how the application of immunoepidemiology and herd immunology could be used to control the actual COVID-19 pandemic, along with a discussion of its effectiveness, limitations, and applications.
[16] Transmission dynamics reveal the impracticality of COVID-19 herd ... — The rapid growth rate of COVID-19 continues to threaten to overwhelm healthcare systems in multiple countries. In response, severely affected countries have had to impose a range of public health strategies achieved via nonpharmaceutical interventions. ... Transmission dynamics reveal the impracticality of COVID-19 herd immunity strategies Proc
[17] Dynamics of Population Immunity Due to the Herd Effect in the COVID-19 ... — According to different models applied to infectious diseases, herd immunity is mathematically related to the propagation and infection tendencies of the virus , which are the result of the relationship established over a certain period of time between the number of healthy subjects and those susceptible to infection, the infected subjects that can no longer contribute to the transmission of the virus, infected subjects, and the natural or vaccine immune subjects (or resolved cases by death) in a population, mediated by the infectiousness of the microorganism, the incubation period, the transmissibility period, the contagion capacity between people, the dynamics of contact between the population, and the duration of the disease .
[18] Herd Immunity: Understanding COVID-19 - Cell Press — The point at which the proportion of susceptible individuals falls below the threshold needed for transmission is known as the herd immunity threshold (Anderson and May, 1985). Above this level of ... Estimating clinical severity of COVID-19 from the transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China. Nat. Med. 2020; 26:506-510. Crossref. Scopus (839) PubMed.
[28] Effectiveness of the Pfizer-BioNTech (BNT162b2) vaccine against the ... — The emergence of the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and the subsequent coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic with the continuous evolution of the virus into variants such as Alpha, Beta, Delta, Omicron and others necessitates an on-going surveillance and evaluation of vaccine effectiveness (VE).This study focuses on assessing the real-world
[29] Decoding SARS-CoV-2 variants: Mutations, viral stability, and ... — Spike Protein Mutations Impact: ... L452Q, and L452R impact immune recognition and vaccine efficacy. Additionally, mutations like F456L, S477N, and T478K are linked to immune escape and reduced vaccine effectiveness. The analysis also considers the effects of mutations such as E484A, E484K, E484Q, Q493R, G496S, Q498R, and H655Y, each having
[39] Modelling the Transmission Dynamics of COVID-19 in Six High-Burden ... — 4. Impact of Age Structure on the Dynamics of COVID-19. In this section, we explored the impact of three age classes, including children (0-14 years), adults (15-64 years), and older (over 64 years), on the transmission dynamics of COVID-19 cases over 80 days in the six high-burden countries.
[41] Modeling COVID-19 transmission between age groups in the United States ... — Abstract. The in-depth understanding of the dynamics of COVID-19 transmission among different age groups is of great interest for governments and health authorities so that strategies can be devised to reduce the pandemic's detrimental effects.
[42] Effects of latency and age structure on the dynamics and containment of ... — To investigate the role of interactions between different age groups in the dynamics of COVID-19, ... Age structure has a major effects on how effective the lockdown is in "flattening the curve", i.e. in reducing the number of hospitalised and critical care cases. ... Garlock E.S., Lau W.Y.V., Saraswat M., Zhang L., Chen D., Wallinga J
[44] Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic - Wikipedia — The first human cases of COVID-19 occurred in Wuhan, People's Republic of China, on or about 17 November 2019. The first confirmed human case in the United States was on 19 January 2020. The World Health Organization declared the COVID-19 outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) on 30 January 2020, and first referred to it as a pandemic on 11 March 2020. The WHO ended the PHEIC on 5 May 2023.
[45] Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States (2020) — By late November 2019, coronavirus disease 2019 had broken out in Wuhan, China. As reported in Clinical Infectious Diseases on November 30, 2020, 7,389 blood samples collected between December 13, 2019, and January 17, 2020, by the American Red Cross from normal donors in nine states (California, Connecticut, Iowa, Massachusetts, Michigan, Oregon, Rhode Island, Washington and Wisconsin
[46] History of COVID-19 - News-Medical.net — By Sarah MooreReviewed by Emily Henderson, B.Sc. The novel human coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was first reported in Wuhan, China, in 2019, and subsequently spread globally to become the fifth documented pandemic since the 1918 flu pandemic. Weeks later, the WHO declared the rapidly spreading COVID-19 outbreak as a Public Health Emergency of International Concern on the 30th of January 2020. However, these measures were predicted to only slow the spread of the virus, scientists understood that to overcome the pandemic, a vaccine needed to be developed/ On the 17th of March, 2020, the first COVID-19 human vaccine trials begin with the Moderna mRNA vaccine. Available at: https://www.who.int/news/item/31-12-2020-who-issues-its-first-emergency-use-validation-for-a-covid-19-vaccine-and-emphasizes-need-for-equitable-global-access Retrieved on March 06, 2025 from https://www.news-medical.net/health/History-of-COVID-19.aspx. <https://www.news-medical.net/health/History-of-COVID-19.aspx>. https://www.news-medical.net/health/History-of-COVID-19.aspx. News-Medical, viewed 06 March 2025, https://www.news-medical.net/health/History-of-COVID-19.aspx.
[48] Timeline of Events Related to the COVID-19 Pandemic - FRASER — In December of 2019, an outbreak of a new strain of coronavirus was first identified in Wuhan, Hubei, China, and was recognized as a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) on March 11, 2020. The pandemic led to global socioeconomic disruption as drastic action was taken to suppress the outbreak. This up-to-date timeline provides details and key events in the crisis, focusing on its
[49] An overview of COVID-19 global epidemiology and discussion of potential ... — For example, the spread of risk factors for severe COVID-19 such as age, obesity or immunosuppression varied globally. 39,40 The built environment, population density and household structures (both size and intergenerational composition) also vary not only across regions but also within countries, and are important in COVID-19 transmission. 41
[50] Socio-economic and environmental factors in the global spread of COVID ... — 2.2.3. Environmental factors. COVID-19 is transmitted through droplets released by virus carriers and contact persons. Also, the nature of the weather can be a source of disease spread. Thus, environmental variables may help to explain the transmission of COVID-19 (Di Marco et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2020; National Commission of the PRC, 2020
[51] The global dynamic transmissibility of COVID-19 and its influencing ... — The novel coronavirus pneumonia (NCP) caused by COVID-19 is a highly infectious disease with the widest global transmission in human history. With the emergence of variants of concern (VOC) such as Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Omicron strains, COVID-19 has exhibited a trend of decreased virulence [] but increasing transmissibility [].As of August 31, 2022, data from WHO shows that
[67] How Asymptomatic Transmission Influences Mitigation and Suppression ... — Despite the myriad of problems for public health responses, asymptomatic cases and the potential for asymptomatic transmission proved to be among the most intractable problems. ... this discussion will explore the evidence for asymptomatic COVID‐19 cases and how various theorized rates should impact public health policy during future
[68] PDF — Asymptomatic carriers of the virus display no clinical symptoms but are known to be con-tagious. Recent evidence reveals that this sub-population, as well as persons with mild disease, are a major contributor in the propa-gation of COVID-19. The asymptomatic sub-population frequently escapes detection by public health surveillance systems. Because
[69] Impact of asymptomatic COVID-19 carriers on pandemic policy outcomes — This paper provides a mathematical model that makes it clearly visible why the underestimation of r, the fraction of asymptomatic COVID-19 carriers in the general population, may lead to a catastrophic reliance on the standard policy intervention that attempts to isolate all confirmed infectious cases.The SE(A+O)R model with infectives separated into asymptomatic and ordinary carriers
[70] Asymptomatic transmission during the COVID-19 pandemic and implications ... — Viral load of asymptomatic carriers is comparable to symptomatic patients, viral shedding is highest before symptom onset suggesting high transmissibility before symptoms. Within universally tested subgroups, surprisingly high percentages of COVID-19 positive asymptomatic individuals were found. ... Keywords: COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Public Health
[71] Transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 through ... — TRANSMISSION OF SARS-COV-2 THROUGH ASYMPTOMATIC CARRIERS. The concept of asymptomatic carriers refers to individuals who test positive for SARS-CoV-2 by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which indicates that they are infected; thus, they represent a risk of spreading the infection 7.The role of asymptomatic carriers in transmission poses several challenges for the control of the COVID-19 pandemic.
[87] Recent Advancements in the Diagnosis, Prevention, and Prospective Drug ... — Recent Advancements in the Diagnosis, Prevention, and Prospective Drug Therapy of COVID-19 ... more evidence is needed for these antiviral drugs to be established as therapy for COVID-19. New multicentre clinical trials on large number of patients are ongoing around the world to gain insights into the development of a suitable vaccine and
[88] Recent advances in small-molecular therapeutics for COVID-19 — Meanwhile, a large number of promising anti-SARS-CoV-2 drug candidates have entered clinical evaluation. The development of these drugs brings hope for us to finally conquer COVID-19. In this account, we conducted a comprehensive review of the recent advances in small molecule anti-SARS-CoV-2 agents according to the target classification.
[89] Key insights into recent advances and challenges in COVID-19 ... - Springer — On January 30th, 2020 the World Health Organization declared a public health emergency of international importance, and a few weeks later on March 2nd 2020, they declared this a global pandemic naming the disease as Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) . Different genetic variations of SARS-CoV-2 have been reported during the COVID-19 pandemic and their structural variations have created a great concern globally. Among all the various methods available so far, the two major tests currently in use to detect SARS-COV-2 infection are molecular methods and serological methods, which can be used irrespective of the viral variant causing the disease . https://doi.org/10.3390/VACCINES9111299. Covid-19 vaccines and variants of concern: a review. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.VACCINE.2022.10.045.
[91] FDA Takes Action on Updated mRNA COVID-19 Vaccines to Better Protect ... — U.S. Food and Drug Administration ================================= Search Menu Search FDA Submit search Featured Report a Product Problem Contact FDA FDA Guidance Documents Recalls, Market Withdrawals and Safety Alerts Press Announcements Warning Letters Advisory Committees En Español Products Food Drugs Medical Devices Radiation-Emitting Products Vaccines, Blood, and Biologics Animal and Veterinary Cosmetics Tobacco Products Topics About FDA Combination Products Regulatory Information Safety Emergency Preparedness International Programs News and Events Training and Continuing Education Inspections and Compliance Science and Research Information For Consumers Patients Industry Health Professionals Federal, State and Local Officials In this section: Press Announcements Press Announcements Home News & Events FDA Newsroom Press Announcements FDA Takes Action on Updated mRNA COVID-19 Vaccines to Better Protect Against Currently Circulating Variants Press Announcements FDA News Release FDA Takes Action on Updated mRNA COVID-19 Vaccines to Better Protect Against Currently Circulating Variants Share Post Linkedin Email Print For Immediate Release: September 11, 2023 Español Today, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration took action approving and authorizing for emergency use updated COVID-19 vaccines formulated to more closely target currently circulating variants and to provide better protection against serious consequences of COVID-19, including hospitalization and death. Today’s actions relate to updated mRNA vaccines for 2023-2024 manufactured by ModernaTX Inc. and Pfizer Inc. Consistent with the totality of the evidence and input from the FDA’s expert advisors, these vaccines have been updated to include a monovalent (single) component that corresponds to the Omicron variant XBB.1.5. What You Need to Know Individuals 5 years of age and older regardless of previous vaccination are eligible to receive a single dose of an updated mRNA COVID-19 vaccine at least 2 months since the last dose of any COVID-19 vaccine. The updated vaccines are expected to provide good protection against COVID-19 from the currently circulating variants.
[93] Therapeutic advances in COVID-19 - PMC - PubMed Central (PMC) — Abstract. Over 2 years have passed since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has claimed millions of lives. Unlike the early days of the pandemic, when management decisions were based on extrapolations from in vitro data, case reports and case series, clinicians are now equipped with an armamentarium of therapies based on high-quality evidence.
[94] Therapeutic strategies for COVID-19: progress and lessons learned - Nature — Advertisement View all journals Search Log in Explore content About the journal Publish with us Sign up for alerts RSS feed nature nature reviews drug discovery review articles article Therapeutic strategies for COVID-19: progress and lessons learned Download PDF Download PDF Review Article Published: 19 April 2023 Therapeutic strategies for COVID-19: progress and lessons learned Guangdi Li ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8852-034X1, Rolf Hilgenfeld ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8850-29772, Richard Whitley ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9959-92763 & … Erik De Clercq ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2985-88904 Show authorsNature Reviews Drug Discovery volume 22, pages 449–475 (2023)Cite this article 50k Accesses 258 Altmetric Metrics details Subjects Antiviral agents Antivirals SARS-CoV-2 Abstract The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has stimulated tremendous efforts to develop therapeutic strategies that target severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and/or human proteins to control viral infection, encompassing hundreds of potential drugs and thousands of patients in clinical trials. So far, a few small-molecule antiviral drugs (nirmatrelvir–ritonavir, remdesivir and molnupiravir) and 11 monoclonal antibodies have been marketed for the treatment of COVID-19, mostly requiring administration within 10 days of symptom onset. Here, we summarize progress with COVID-19 drug discovery, based on accumulated findings since the pandemic began and a comprehensive list of clinical and preclinical inhibitors with anti-coronavirus activities. We also discuss the lessons learned from COVID-19 and other infectious diseases with regard to drug repurposing strategies, pan-coronavirus drug targets, in vitro assays and animal models, and platform trial design for the development of therapeutics to tackle COVID-19, long COVID and pathogenic coronaviruses in future outbreaks.
[99] How SARS-CoV-2 Transformed the Clinical Laboratory: Challenges and ... — During the COVID-19 pandemic, our systems and processes were strained due to high testing volumes, demand for rapid turnaround times, supply chain constraints, and constantly evolving testing algorithms and result interpretations as our knowledge of the virus and of diagnostics increased over time.
[100] The United States' SARS-CoV-2 Testing Challenges Underscore the Need to ... — Challenges in using diagnostics to support a public health response to COVID-19 have been evident in the US since the beginning of the pandemic. Though some countries were able to quickly build capacities to test patients suspected of being infected with the SARS-CoV-2, the US struggled for months to do so. At the onset of the pandemic, testing persons suspected of having the virus was limited
[102] Increasing COVID-19 vaccination uptake - World Health Organization (WHO) — In November 2023, the WHO Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on Immunization (SAGE) published an updated Roadmap for prioritizing the use of COVID-19 vaccines. The Roadmap recommends a simplified schedule in the context of high population immunity from vaccination and/or infection, with a focus on high priority-use groups.
[103] Planning and adjusting the COVID-19 booster vaccination campaign to ... — The current epidemiology of COVID-19 remains indeed uncertain, preventing the formulation of routine immunization programs while entering into the first post-pandemic (WHO, 2023b) winter of 2023/2024. Higher viral activity has been registered in the winter season, corresponding to the traditional influenza season. But in 2023, many European countries recommended spring vaccination campaigns
[104] Full article: COVID-19 Communication Campaigns for Vaccination: An ... — As federal and local officials consider allocation of funding and resources for future COVID-19 prevention efforts, develop new communication campaigns to promote COVID-19 vaccination (The White House, 2022), and prepare for inevitable future pandemics, objective evaluation of the campaigns over the past few years is of particular importance.
[105] PDF — Despite widespread availability of COVID-19 vaccination in wealthy countries, many peo-ple remain unvaccinated. In the United States, 72.9 percent of adults were fully vaccinated (with two doses) and only 13.5 percent were up to date with boosters as of December 2022, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2022). Understanding why common strategies to encourage
[108] FDA Approves New Covid Vaccines: What You Need to Know - AARP — The latest vaccines are designed to target the XBB.1.5 strain of omicron. While this particular variant is no longer driving the majority of the country's infections, its close relatives are, and experts say the vaccines should provide good protection against them, including EG.5, or Eris.New data also suggests the shots will be effective against BA.2.86, a new variant that's not yet
[129] Long COVID: Long-Term Effects of COVID-19 - Johns Hopkins Medicine — But in some others, long-term effects of COVID-19 can cause lingering health problems and wreak havoc for months. But others experience lingering health problems even after the fever and cough go away and they are no longer testing positive for the illness. Parker notes that the World Health Organization has developed a definition for post-COVID-19 condition (the WHO’s term for long COVID) as coronavirus symptoms that persist or return three months after a person becomes ill from infection with SARS CoV-2, the coronavirus that causes COVID-19. Those symptoms can include: Fatigue Shortness of breath Cognitive problems (thinking and memory) The symptoms can come and go, but have an impact on the person’s everyday functioning, and cannot be explained by another health problem. In fact, long COVID can happen in people who have mild symptoms, although patients with more severe initial illness seem to be more likely to have long-term impairments.
[130] Long COVID: Lasting effects of COVID-19 - Mayo Clinic — Understand the possible symptoms and risk factors for post-COVID-19 syndrome. This lingering illness has often been called long COVID or post-COVID-19 syndrome. In research studies, more than 200 symptoms have been linked to long COVID. Common symptoms of long COVID include: Extreme tiredness, especially after activity.
[131] Long COVID Basics | COVID-19 | CDC - Centers for Disease Control and ... — Long COVID CDC Science behind Long COVID Long COVID CDC Science behind Long COVID Anyone who had a SARS-CoV-2 infection, the virus that causes COVID-19, can experience Long COVID, including children. About Long COVID Anyone can get Long COVID Vaccination can prevent Long COVID There is no laboratory test that can determine if your symptoms or conditions are due to Long COVID. People experiencing Long COVID should seek care from a healthcare provider to create a personal medical management plan and improve their symptoms and quality of life. How many people experience Long COVID and why CDC posts data on Long COVID and provides analyses. About Long COVID Long COVID
[132] Long-term effects of COVID-19 (long COVID) - NHS — Most people with COVID-19 feel better within a few days or weeks of their first symptoms and make a full recovery within 12 weeks. For some people, symptoms can last longer. This is called long COVID or post COVID-19 syndrome. Long COVID is a new condition which is still being studied. Information:You can sign up to take part in long COVID research on the Be Part of Research website Symptoms of long COVID The most common symptoms of long COVID are: extreme tiredness (fatigue) feeling short of breath problems with your memory and concentration ("brain fog") heart palpitations dizziness joint pain and muscle aches However, there are lots of symptoms you can have after a COVID-19 infection, including: loss of smell chest pain or tightness difficulty sleeping (insomnia) pins and needles depression and anxiety tinnitus, earaches feeling sick, diarrhoea, stomach aches, loss of appetite cough, headaches, sore throat, changes to sense of smell or taste rashes Non-urgent advice: Contact a GP if: you've had symptoms of COVID-19 for 4 weeks or more and are worried What happens at your GP appointment If you see a GP about ongoing COVID-19 symptoms, they may suggest tests to find out more about your symptoms and rule out other conditions that could cause them.
[139] Long COVID Syndrome: Lesson Learned and Future Implications — Mechanisms contributing to the pathophysiology of long COVID include direct pulmonary and extra-pulmonary cytotoxicity and viral-independent mechanisms such as immune dysregulation and perivascular inflammation, which contribute to the disruption of the endothelial-epithelial barrier with the invasion of white blood cells (i.e., monocytes and
[140] Barriers and facilitators of healthcare access for long COVID-19 ... — Background Long COVID-19 challenges health and social systems globally. International research finds major inequalities in prevalence and healthcare utilization as patients describe difficulties with accessing health care. In order to improve long-term outcomes it is vital to understand any underlying access barriers, for which relevant evidence on long COVID-19 is thus far lacking in a
[142] Accessing care for Long Covid from the perspectives of patients and ... — By exploring the challenges and facilitators faced when attempting to access healthcare, the findings will inform policy changes to formulate targeted and effective approaches to improve care access and delivery. ... care pathways for Long Covid. Three patients described their symptoms as beginning during the early stages of the COVID‐19
[143] Challenges in Receiving Care for Long COVID: A Qualitative Interview ... — Patient expectations for general primary care (ie, disease and treatment knowledge, rapport, emotional support) are similar to those for long COVID care. 29 In this study and others, patients expect multidisciplinary, holistic services, continuity of care, and clear clinical responsibility. 20,24 A novel finding is that patients are motivated
[144] PDF — BACKGROUND For many patients with post-COVID-19 condition (long COVID), primary care is the first point of interaction with the health care system. In principle, primary care is well situated to manage long COVID. Beyond expressions of disempowerment, however, the patient's perspective regarding the quality of long COVID care is lacking.
[145] Long COVID-19: Symptoms and Stories - Northwestern Medicine — A Northwestern Medicine study found that more than 8 out of 10 people with long COVID-19 experience four or more neurologic symptoms that impact quality of life and cognitive abilities up to 15 months after having the disease. Another Northwestern Medicine study that evaluated 1,802 patients with long COVID-19 ... Samantha had a hard time
[158] Treatment on Trial to Reverse Long COVID Effects — An immunomodulator being investigated by researchers at Vanderbilt University Medical Center holds promise in reversing the effects of long COVID (LC), a condition that impacts about 200 million people globally, 15 million in the U.S. alone. Vanderbilt researchers are joined by over 40 investigators from five additional sites in conducting this federally-funded phase 3, multicenter, placebo-controlled trial to examine the effect of immunomodulation on long COVID. “We’ve already shown that baricitinib saves lives in acute COVID-19, and it became the first immunomodulator with FDA approval for this indication,” said Wes Ely, M.D., M.P.H., co-director of the Vanderbilt Critical Illness, Brain Dysfunction and Survivorship Center and a principal investigator in the study. The REVERSE-LC trial will test the hypothesis that six months of baricitinib will improve neurocognitive and physical function in patients with long COVID symptoms.
[164] New Data: The Most Promising Treatments for Long COVID - Medscape — Some research suggests that low-dose naltrexone may be helpful for patients suffering from brain fog, pain, sleep issues, and fatigue, said Ziyad Al-Aly, MD, a global expert on long COVID and chief of research and development at the Veterans Affairs St Louis Health Care System. In another study, published in the June 2024 issue of Frontiers in Medicine, researchers found that low-dose naltrexone was associated with improvement of several clinical symptoms related to long COVID such as fatigue, poor sleep quality, brain fog, post-exertional malaise, and headache. Modafinil, a medication previously used for managing narcolepsy, has also been shown effective for the treatment of fatigue and neurocognitive deficits caused by long COVID, said Viswanathan. Cite this: New Data: The Most Promising Treatments for Long COVID - Medscape - November 27, 2024.
[165] COVID's Inflammation Linked to Long-Term Brain Effects — These findings suggest that neuroinflammation could play a key role in the cognitive decline seen in "long COVID," stressing the need for ongoing monitoring and targeted therapies for survivors. Key Facts: COVID-19 patients showed significant neuroinflammation, regardless of disease severity.
[166] Background for CDC's Updated Respiratory Virus Guidance — Transitioning from an emergency state Since 2020, CDC provided guidance specific to COVID-19, initially with detailed recommendations on many issues and for specific settings. Throughout 2022 and 2023, CDC revised COVID-19 public health recommendations as the pandemic evolved. These changes to the guidance reflected the latest scientific evidence as well as the progression through the pandemic
[167] Evolution of WHO COVID-19 mask guidelines amid intense demands for ... — During a health emergency, there is an urgent need to rapidly develop guidelines that meet minimum quality standards, as exemplified by the development of WHO guidelines on mask use in health care and community settings during the COVID-19 pandemic. Between January 2020 and October 2023, WHO developed 21 guideline updates on the use of masks as part of infection prevention and control (IPC
[168] Public Health COVID-19 Impact Assessment: Lessons Learned and ... — COVID-19 has newly exposed and further exacerbated these long-standing challenges, while also illuminating the pervasive racial and socioeconomic inequities in health care access, quality, and outcomes in the U.S. While health departments have been foundational to the nation’s response to the pandemic (e.g., guidance development, testing and tracing) the sector has experienced numerous challenges with causes both old (e.g., gaps in information technology) and new (e.g., politicization and mistrust of public health leaders and guidance). National initiatives for specific public health needs (e.g., tuberculosis control, HIV/AIDS) and the emerging interdependencies between the public sector’s health, medical, and social service programs (e.g., partnerships between health departments and state Medicaid programs) increased the federal government’s involvement in public health. Available at: https://www.npr.org/2020/08/10/901064484/california-coronavirus-testing-problem-prompts-resignation-of-public-health-offi (accessed on October 30, 2020). Available at: https://www.debeaumont.org/news/2020/seeing-the-bigger-picture-of-public-health-workforce-challenges/ (accessed on October 30, 2020). Available at: https://www.shadac.org/news/updated-brief-examines-state-health-compare-estimates-state-funding-public-health (accessed on October 29, 2020).
[169] Engaging Communities to Combat Health Disparities: Strategies for ... — Engaging Communities to Combat Health Disparities: Strategies for Effective Collaboration - Western Pennsylvania Healthcare News Engaging Communities to Combat Health Disparities: Strategies for Effective Collaboration Importance of Community Engagement in Public Health Community engagement plays a crucial role in addressing health disparities. One effective way to do this is through community programs that address health disparities. These actions include public health policies that promote access to health care for Native Hawaiian, Pacific Islander, and Tribal communities. These interventions can reduce health care disparities by focusing on the unique needs of each community. These collaborations help address health disparities by uniting different sectors, including community-based organizations, health systems, and public health departments. Collaboration is key to addressing health disparities through community programs.
[170] Strategies To Empower Communities To Reduce Health Disparities — Community-based participatory research is based on collaboration between and participation by community members, representatives of community-based organizations, and researchers to achieve health equity through social action.8 The approach involves a long-term partnership that is focused on a local health issue and involves co-learning, capacity building, shared decision making, mutual ownership of research findings, and dissemination of results.6 It increases the relevance of the research to community members, balances power among the partners, and helps translate research into policy and practice.6 It also helps identify community assets on which to build interventions, and it facilitates the exchange of knowledge between researchers and community members.5
[171] Cultural Tailoring of Health Interventions - iResearchNet — Cultural Tailoring of Health Interventions - iResearchNet Cultural Tailoring of Health Interventions Cultural tailoring in the context of health interventions involves the customization of programs to align with the specific cultural values, beliefs, and practices of a target population. This tailoring recognizes that health behaviors are deeply rooted in cultural contexts and that interventions need to be adapted to resonate with diverse communities. Culturally tailored interventions have the potential to improve health outcomes, reduce healthcare disparities, and enhance overall public health. Future research should also prioritize the examination of cultural tailoring in the context of emerging global health challenges, ensuring interventions are adaptable to diverse cultural settings. Cultural Tailoring of Health Interventions
[174] Evolving Face Mask Guidance During a Pandemic and Potential Harm to ... — Official communications that include concise information backed by systematic data are critical to ensure widespread adoption and sustained adherence to public health interventions. However, the rapid spread of COVID-19 and the evolving evidence around its mitigation led to confusion from the public surrounding the fluctuating mask guidelines.
[175] Best practices for government agencies to publish data: lessons from ... — Without data, knowing how to respond to the COVID-19 pandemic would have been impossible. Data were crucial to understanding how the disease spread and which efforts successfully protected people. Yet, national agencies often did not publish their data in an optimal way, which made responding to the pandemic challenging. Therefore, learning from what went well and what did not for the future
[177] Digital and virtual strategies to advance community stakeholder ... — Despite the adversity presented by COVID-19 pandemic, it also pushed for experimenting with innovative strategies for community engagement. The Community Research Advisory Council (C-RAC) at Johns Hopkins University (JHU), is an initiative to promote community engagement in research.
[179] Connect, collaborate and tailor: a model of community engagement ... — Connect, Collaborate and Tailor (CCT) is a Public Health Agency of Canada funded project to make new connections between public health, healthcare professionals and underserved communities in order to create culturally adapted communication about COVID-19 vaccines. Interviews also explored CCT participants’ experiences of collaboration through the development of new partnerships between ethnic minority communities, public health and academic researchers, and the evolution of co-operation sharing ideas and creating infographics. A multidisciplinary group from public health, pharmacy, primary care, and community representatives (CCT) collaborated on the production of information tools to advance COVID-19 vaccine confidence and acceptance among underserved ethnic minority populations in the Region of Waterloo.
[205] CDC's Role in Tracking Variants | COVID-19 | CDC - Centers for Disease ... — The program provides a comprehensive surveillance system for the United States to track virus evolution over time and identify emerging variants that may affect the performance of diagnostics, therapeutics, or vaccines, or that impact the transmissibility of SARS-CoV-2 or severity of COVID-19.
[206] CDC's Role in Tracking Variants — A comprehensive system for SARS-CoV-2 genetic surveillance is important. Mutations (nucleotide substitutions) occur in viruses and accumulate with continued viral spread; these mutations result in variants that may have different attributes. Genomic surveillance identifies circulating variants to rapidly inform public health response efforts.
[207] COVID-19 variants | WHO COVID-19 dashboard - datadot — Since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic and with the evolution of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, multiple COVID-19 Variants of Concern (VOCs) and Variants of Interest (VOIs) have been designated by WHO based on their assessed potential for expansion and replacement of prior variants, for causing new waves with increased circulation, and for the need for adjustments to public health actions. Variant of Interest (VOI) A Variant of Interest (VOI) is a term used to describe a SARS-CoV-2 variant with changes that are known to affect how the virus behaves or its potential impact on human health. A VOI may also be identified because it has an increased ability to spread when compared with other circulating variants, suggesting a potential emerging risk to global public health. World Health Organization 2023 data.who.int, WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) dashboard > Variants [Dashboard].
[208] Tracking SARS-CoV-2 variants - World Health Organization (WHO) — It remains critical that global systems to detect signals of potential variants of interest (VOIs) or variants of concern (VOCs) and rapidly assess the risk posed by SARS-CoV-2 variants to public health are maintained, and data are shared, according to good principles and in a timely fashion.
[210] The Role Of Genomics In Fighting Infectious Diseases — Genomic data also reveals how pathogens evolve in real-time. During the COVID-19 pandemic, global genomic surveillance networks tracked the emergence of variants with enhanced transmissibility or immune evasion capabilities, allowing public health officials to adjust control strategies accordingly.
[212] Decoding omicron: Genetic insight into its transmission dynamics ... — This study underscores the importance of continuous genomic surveillance and advanced computational modeling to track and predict the evolutionary trajectories of SARS-CoV-2 variants. The insights gained from this research are crucial for informing public health strategies, vaccine updates, and therapeutic interventions to mitigate the impact of current and future SARS-CoV-2 variants.
[214] Further Improving Analysis of Date-Based COVID-19 Surveillance Data — There is another issue with these data that must be dealt with before making any inferences about the outbreak: outcome misclassification. 4,5 Such errors will primarily be underreporting (i.e., suboptimal sensitivity of the surveillance program) through asymptomatic infection or those symptomatic and unable or unwilling to test, but there may also be issues with diagnostic accuracy, including
[215] Considerations for Improving Reporting and Analysis of Date ... - PubMed — More than a year after the first domestic COVID-19 cases, the United States does not have national standards for COVID-19 surveillance data analysis and public reporting. This has led to dramatic variations in surveillance practices among public health agencies, which analyze and present newly confirmed cases by a wide variety of dates.
[216] Challenges and Opportunities for Global Genomic Surveillance Strategies ... — Global SARS-CoV-2 genomic surveillance efforts have provided critical data on the ongoing evolution of the virus to inform best practices in clinical care and public health throughout the pandemic. Impactful genomic surveillance strategies generally follow a multi-disciplinary pipeline involving clinical sample collection, viral genotyping, metadata linkage, data reporting, and public health responses. Genomic surveillance strategies are generally comprised of clinical sample collection, viral genetic analysis, linkage to metadata (and possibly clinical) data, reporting, and communication with public health agencies for response and messaging (Figure 1). A robust and sustainable infrastructure for genomic surveillance systems to track SARS-CoV-2 variants around the globe has the potential to substantially reduce the burden of disease through the timely dissemination of data to optimize research priorities, therapeutics development, public health responses, and clinical care.
[217] Mutational dynamics of SARS-CoV-2: Impact on future COVID-19 vaccine ... — Mutations within the S protein have been shown to enhance transmissibility and confer resistance to antibody-mediated neutralization, undermining the efficacy of traditional vaccine platforms. Moreover, the S protein undergoes rapid molecular evolution under selective immune pressure, leading to the emergence of diverse variants with distinct
[218] Interferon resistance of emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants — The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants with enhanced transmissibility, pathogenesis, and resistance to vaccines presents urgent challenges for curbing the COVID-19 pandemic. While Spike mutations that enhance virus infectivity or neutralizing antibody evasion may drive the emergence of these novel var …
[219] SARS-CoV-2 Variants: Genetic Insights, Epidemiological Tracking, and ... — Similarly, the Delta variant (B.1.617.2) has the L452R mutation, which also improves ACE2 binding and contributes to higher transmissibility and even resistance to vaccines. In fact, some studies have demonstrated that the L452R mutation confers the virus with resistance to mRNA-based vaccines from different companies . 3.2.
[220] Emerging mutation patterns in SARS-CoV-2 variants - PMC — There is an urgent need to understand the functional effects of mutations in emerging variants of SARS-CoV-2. Variants of concern (alpha, beta, gamma and delta) acquired four patterns of spike glycoprotein mutations that enhance transmissibility and immune evasion: 1) mutations in the N-terminal domain (NTD), 2) mutations in the Receptor Binding Domain (RBD), 3) mutations at interchain
[222] Challenges and Opportunities for Global Genomic Surveillance Strategies ... — However, recent advances in sequencing technologies and accessibility, coupled with the global scope and urgency of the COVID-19 pandemic, have resulted in more genomic surveillance for SARS-CoV-2 than any other pathogen to date.
[223] Maintaining genomic surveillance using whole-genome sequencing of SARS ... — Genomic sequencing of SARS-CoV-2 has had a major role in the public health response to the COVID-19 pandemic, enabling mapping of viral transmission at global and local levels, informing infection control measures, and, importantly, identifying and tracking the emergence of new SARS-CoV-2 variants.1-3 The rapid detection and characterisation of new variants is crucial for informing the
[224] Towards increased accuracy and reproducibility in SARS-CoV-2 next ... — During the COVID-19 pandemic, SARS-CoV-2 surveillance efforts integrated genome sequencing of clinical samples to identify emergent viral variants and to support rapid experimental examination of genome-informed vaccine and therapeutic designs. Given the broad range of methods applied to generate ne …
[233] SARS-CoV-2 Evolution - World Health Organization (WHO) — This process of changing and selection of successful variants is called "virus evolution." Some mutations can lead to changes in a virus's characteristics, such as altered transmission (for example, it may spread more easily) or severity (for example, it may cause more severe disease). Some viruses change quickly and others more slowly.
[235] SARS-CoV-2: Evolution and Emergence of New Viral Variants — 3. Variants of Concern and Variants of Interest. The WHO defined VOCs, VOIs, and VUMs in function of their genome mutations, their properties of spreading between susceptible hosts and the disease severity produced, and by the evasion of the immune response elicited by current available vaccines and by the therapeutic treatments with convalescent plasma or by the use of therapeutic monoclonal
[236] Inferring effects of mutations on SARS-CoV-2 transmission from ... - Nature — Inferring effects of mutations on SARS-CoV-2 transmission from genomic surveillance data | Nature Communications We found that inference is accurate even without abundant data, especially when we combine information from outbreaks in different regions (Fig. 1, Supplementary Fig. 1) Because we model the evolution of relative frequencies of different variants, accurate inference of transmission effects does not require the knowledge of difficult-to-estimate parameters such as the current number of infected individuals or the effective reproduction number (see the “Methods” section). c Top 50 mutations at the amino acid level, which can include the effects of multiple SNVs for deletions and amino acid substitutions that are the result of multiple nucleotide changes within a single codon, inferred to increase SARS-CoV-2 transmission the most, the major variants in which they are observed, their phenotypic effects, and selection coefficients (see Supplementary Table 1).
[247] What was the impact of COVID-19? - Encyclopedia Britannica — Ask the Chatbot Games & Quizzes History & Society Science & Tech Biographies Animals & Nature Geography & Travel Arts & Culture ProCon Money Videos COVID-19 pandemic: testingHealth care workers test people for COVID-19 at a drive-through testing center in New York.(more) Not long after the pandemic took hold, the United States, which spends more per capita on medical care than any other country, became the epicenter of COVID-19 fatalities. “In 2020, the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic, the global economy shrank by approximately 3 percent, and global poverty increased for the first time in a generation.” On December 14, 2020, New York nurse Sandra Lindsay capped the tumultuous year by receiving the first shot of the vaccine that eventually would help end the public health crisis caused by COVID-19 pandemic.
[248] Impact of COVID-19 on people's livelihoods, their health and our food ... — The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a dramatic loss of human life worldwide and presents an unprecedented challenge to public health, food systems and the world of work. Millions of agricultural workers – waged and self-employed – while feeding the world, regularly face high levels of working poverty, malnutrition and poor health, and suffer from a lack of safety and labour protection as well as other types of abuse. Guaranteeing the safety and health of all agri-food workers – from primary producers to those involved in food processing, transport and retail, including street food vendors – as well as better incomes and protection, will be critical to saving lives and protecting public health, people’s livelihoods and food security. In the COVID-19 crisis food security, public health, and employment and labour issues, in particular workers’ health and safety, converge.
[249] Social Analysis of a Pandemic: How COVID-19 Impacted Society — The initial impact of COVID-19 on individuals who contract it can be serious. Hundreds of thousands of people have died from the illness in the U.S. Older people, the unvaccinated, and those with chronic health conditions and weakened immune systems face the greatest risk, and marginalized populations have experienced a higher rate of poor outcomes.
[252] Labor Impacts of COVID-19 in U.S. Agriculture: Evidence from the ... — An implication is that targeted policies based on vulnerabilities may minimize disparate impacts of a public health shock. Understanding the full impacts of COVID-19 on essential labor remains important for economics, public policy, and food systems in addition to public health.
[253] The Influence of Organizational Aspects of the U.S. Agricultural ... — 1. Introduction. Epidemiological studies showed that farmworkers in the U.S. were at an increased risk of COVID-19 infection during the COVID-19 pandemic .COVID-19 infection rates were higher among farmworkers compared to other occupational groups, such as those in the public and retail sectors [].Large COVID-19 outbreaks occurred in meat and poultry processing facilities and
[264] COVID-19 and its Disproportionate Effect on Marginalized Communities — The associated economic shutdown due to the pandemic has created a dire predicament for millions of workers. Nonetheless, emerging evidence of skewed employment compositions and lower financial resources show that marginalized communities—namely the Black and Hispanic communities—have been dispropor
[265] Pandemic Spending and Underserved Communities — The first guiding principle," said Friedman, "is to use funds to address the root causes and conditions of systemic inequalities based on race, gender, disability, economic status, and other historically marginalized or oppressed communities which predated and were exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic.
[266] Reduce Inequality to Bolster Societal Resilience: Lessons From the ... — Reducing social and economic inequality would promote population mental health and societal resilience to future crises. The COVID-19 pandemic brought about an overall increase in the prevalence of mental health problems. These problems were, however, stratified based on socioeconomic status (SES).
[268] Mitigating the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on vulnerable ... — The overlapping vulnerabilities experienced by the vulnerable populations also call for more policy attention toward the social, economic and political determinants of health during the pandemic. This should include follow-up interventions to strengthen social protection policies to safeguard the vulnerable populations' social, economic and
[269] Effects of Economic Policies - Addressing the Long-Term Effects of the ... — In the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic, families were hit with economic hardship—tens of millions of people lost their jobs, resulting for many families in an inability to pay rent, pay household bills, and feed their families (Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, 2021). This economic hardship disproportionately affected low-income families, who were economically vulnerable prior to
[274] Effects of support systems on the mental health of nursing students ... — Mental Health has been declining over the last three years, coinciding with the COVID-19 pandemic. A person's support system can either improve or worsen their mental health. Nursing students likely have been severely impacted by COVID-19 and their support system may impact their mental health. This study used the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21) and the Social Support Scale
[275] How social support and resilience impact mental health: The moderating ... — During the COVID-19 pandemic, quarantines effectively prevented the spread of COVID-19 but also caused people to develop mental health problems. We thus aimed to verify the impact of social support and resilience on mental health and to uncover the moderating role played by time in isolation during the post-pandemic era.
[276] COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on social relationships and health — We use relational theories and emerging research on the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic response to make three key recommendations: one regarding public health responses; and two regarding social recovery. For example, local area-based networks emerged due to geographic restrictions (eg, stay-at-home orders), resulting in increases in neighbourly support and local volunteering.10 In fact, research suggests that relationships with neighbours displayed the largest net gain in ratings of relationship quality compared with a range of relationship types (eg, partner, colleague, friend).8 Much of this was built from spontaneous individual interactions within local communities, which together contributed to the ‘community spirit’ that many experienced.11 COVID-19 restrictions thus impacted the personal social networks and the structure of the larger networks within the society.
[277] The mental health benefits of community helping during crisis ... — The COVID-19 pandemic has presented a global health crisis capable of exerting a heavy toll on the mental health of community members … Communities are vital sources of support during crisis, providing collective contexts for shared identity and solidarity that predict supportive, prosocial responses.
[278] The mental health benefits of community helping during crisis ... — Survey data collected in the UK during June 2020 showed that coordinated community helping predicted the psychological bonding of community members by building a sense of community identification and unity during the pandemic, which predicted increased well‐being and reduced depression and anxiety. C_oordinated community help during the COVID‐19 pandemic_ was measured with an adaptation of the Provided and Received Coordinated Social Support Scale (Drury et al., 2016). Going further, the present findings further extend this literature by synthesizing insights from the social psychology of disaster responses (e.g., Drury et al., 2016) to show how these pathways between prosocial behaviour, community relationships and well‐being operate during the current global health crisis and by revealing the role of community unity.