Separating symbolic and active representation: a mixed methods study of gender and education in China

Abstract

Bureaucracies representative of the public can affect programme outcomes either through active representation by bureaucrats or symbolic representation via changes in client behaviour. Separating out these different aspects of representation requires understanding the interaction of bureaucrats and clients which is difficult using only quantitative data. Using individual-level quantitative analysis of Chinese education data, we find gender representation exists. Qualitative interviews of teachers, students and school principals, however, indicate that the effects are most likely not from active representation but rather via the symbolic representation through role-model effects.