Table of Contents
Overview
Definition and Purpose
Vaccination is a biological product designed to safely induce an immune response that provides protection against infection and disease upon subsequent exposure to a pathogen. This process leverages the immune system's ability to remember encounters with pathogen antigens, enhancing defenses against diseases before exposure occurs.[1.1] The primary purpose of vaccination is to build resistance to specific infections, strengthening the immune system without causing the disease itself. Vaccines achieve this by containing killed or weakened forms of pathogens, which do not pose a risk of complications associated with the diseases they prevent.[2.1] By working with the body's natural defenses, vaccines significantly reduce the likelihood of contracting diseases, thereby protecting both individuals and communities.[4.1] Vaccines can be administered through injections, liquids, pills, or nasal sprays, and are designed to teach the immune system to recognize and defend against harmful germs.[4.1] The historical context of vaccination dates back to 1796 when Edward Jenner introduced the first vaccine using the cowpox virus to confer protection against smallpox, marking a pivotal moment in public health.[3.1] Overall, vaccination serves as a cornerstone of public health policy, demonstrating high cost-effectiveness in protecting child health and reducing the burden of infectious diseases.[1.1]Mechanism of Action
Vaccines operate through various mechanisms to elicit immune responses, which can differ significantly based on the type of vaccine used. Viral vector vaccines, for instance, leverage the ability of viruses to infect cells and induce broad immune responses. These vaccines express heterologous antigens, typically derived from genes engineered into the viral genome, which in turn stimulate both humoral and cellular immune responses specific to the antigens presented.[17.1] However, the precise mechanisms by which these viral vector vaccines activate immune responses remain partially understood, particularly regarding the roles of dendritic cells in priming T cell responses.[15.1] In addition to generating immune responses against the encoded transgene, adenoviral vector immunization also provokes immunity against the viral particle itself. This includes the production of anti-vector antibodies and cellular immune responses, both of which can independently affect the vaccine's immunogenicity.[18.1] Notably, viral vector-based vaccines can enhance immunogenicity without the need for adjuvants and are capable of inducing robust cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses, which are crucial for eliminating virus-infected cells.[19.1] Conversely, mRNA vaccines function by instructing human cells to produce viral proteins, such as the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2, thereby triggering an immune response without prior exposure to the virus. This rapid development process allows for the creation of vaccines targeting newly identified viruses within a matter of days to weeks, relying primarily on knowledge of the viral genetic code.[25.1] Studies have shown that mRNA vaccines can elicit a predominant Th1 response, characterized by the production of specific cytokines, and that a second dose is often necessary to achieve significant neutralizing antibody levels.[23.1] Live attenuated vaccines, on the other hand, contain weakened forms of the pathogen that can replicate without causing disease in healthy individuals. This approach typically requires fewer doses to achieve long-lasting immunity, although booster shots may be necessary for sustained protection.[24.1] The mechanisms of action for these vaccines involve the generation of a protective immune response through exposure to the live, albeit altered, pathogen.History
Early Developments
Early vaccination efforts faced significant challenges that shaped public perception and policy regarding vaccination in subsequent years. One of the primary challenges was the need to balance speed, efficiency, equity, and the protection of vulnerable populations during the initial rollout of COVID-19 vaccines. This balancing act was crucial as states aimed to immunize their populations amid an ongoing pandemic, which highlighted the complexities of vaccination logistics and public health priorities.[59.1] As vaccine supply increased in March 2021, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) noted that awardees struggled to meet their immunization goals, further complicating the vaccination landscape.[60.1] This struggle was not unique to the COVID-19 pandemic; historical vaccination efforts have also faced obstacles. For instance, in the 1990s, immunization coverage stagnated, particularly in lower-income countries, where the slow introduction of new life-saving vaccines exacerbated existing inequities in protection against infectious diseases.[61.1] Moreover, the early years of the twentieth century saw a rise in antivaccination sentiment, which was fueled by public perception of adverse vaccination-related events, especially when diseases were not prevalent. This sentiment contributed to skepticism about vaccination efforts and influenced public health policies.[62.1] Collectively, these challenges not only impacted the immediate effectiveness of vaccination campaigns but also shaped long-term public attitudes and policy frameworks surrounding vaccination.Key Milestones in Vaccination
The history of vaccination is marked by several key milestones that have significantly shaped public health. The inception of vaccination can be traced back to the late 18th century when Edward Jenner introduced the first vaccine using the cowpox virus to confer protection against smallpox in 1796. This groundbreaking development laid the foundation for future vaccine research and implementation.[49.1] In the early 20th century, the landscape of vaccination expanded with the introduction of vaccines for various diseases. Notable milestones include the first vaccine for tuberculosis developed by Albert Calmette in 1921, followed by vaccines for diphtheria, scarlet fever, tetanus, and pertussis in the subsequent years.[48.1] The late 19th century marked a significant shift as vaccines began to be developed in laboratories, and by the 20th century, advancements in immunologic markers allowed for more sophisticated vaccine designs.[46.1] A pivotal moment in vaccination history occurred in 1967 when the World Health Organization (WHO) launched the Intensified Smallpox Eradication Programme. This initiative aimed to eradicate smallpox through mass vaccination and targeted surveillance, ultimately leading to the disease's global eradication.[47.1] The success of this program not only demonstrated the effectiveness of vaccination campaigns but also influenced public health policies and attitudes towards vaccination worldwide.[56.1] The 21st century has seen further advancements in vaccine technology, particularly with the advent of molecular biology. This has enabled the development of new vaccine types, including mRNA and viral vector vaccines, which have been crucial in responding to emerging infectious diseases such as COVID-19.[64.1] The ongoing evolution of vaccine technology continues to address public health challenges and improve disease prevention strategies globally.Recent Advancements
Innovations in Vaccine Technology
Recent advancements in vaccine technology have significantly transformed the landscape of immunization, particularly in response to global health challenges. At the 2023 Global Vaccine and Immunization Research Forum (GVIRF), researchers discussed innovative approaches such as virus-like particles (VLPs) for mucosal administration and mRNA-VLP combination vaccines, highlighting the potential of structure-based immunogen design to enhance vaccine efficacy.[84.1] The ongoing evolution of vaccine development has been characterized by the integration of traditional methods with emerging technologies, including viral vector vaccines, DNA/RNA vaccines, and rational vaccine design, which collectively address existing challenges in vaccine efficacy and accessibility.[88.1] One of the most notable advancements is the development of microarray patches (MAPs), which are needle-free vaccine delivery systems designed for easy administration by minimally trained healthcare workers. These patches have the potential to revolutionize vaccine delivery, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), by improving access and equity in immunization programs.[94.1] The World Health Organization's Initiative for Vaccine Research is actively exploring the implementation of MAPs to enhance vaccination coverage, especially in populations that are traditionally hard to reach.[95.1] The COVID-19 pandemic underscored the urgent need for innovations that facilitate rapid and large-scale vaccine administration, particularly in underserved communities.[91.1] The introduction of MAPs could significantly improve public health outcomes by increasing vaccine acceptability among caregivers and recipients, thereby enhancing overall immunization rates.[93.1] Furthermore, recent studies have demonstrated the efficacy of mRNA vaccines not only against infectious diseases but also in the context of cancer treatment, showcasing their versatility and potential for future applications.[96.1]Addressing Vaccine Hesitancy
Community engagement has emerged as a critical strategy in addressing vaccine hesitancy and promoting vaccination uptake. A systematic review and meta-analysis revealed that community engagement significantly enhances vaccination rates, with a moderate positive effect size of 34% through pre-post intervention analyses and an 18% increase through between-group intervention analyses.[115.1] This underscores the importance of tailored community engagement strategies that resonate with specific populations. Research indicates that the effectiveness of community engagement varies based on its content and extent. Different approaches, such as establishing community-academic partnerships, building community capacity through training, and implementing community-based interventions, have been shown to positively influence vaccination behaviors.[119.1] For instance, a study utilizing data from the 2021 Chinese General Social Survey highlighted that community engagement strategies were particularly effective in promoting COVID-19 vaccination among individuals with poorer health and lower household wealth.[117.1] In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, initiatives like the Nevada Vaccine Equity Coalition (NVEC) have demonstrated the necessity of community engagement in addressing health disparities. The NVEC focused on providing sub-grants to community partners, developing culturally responsive resources, and conducting outreach in impacted communities, which collectively aimed to improve vaccine equity.[118.1] Moreover, targeted strategies such as awareness campaigns, mobile clinics, and community-centered outreach have been recommended to educate underserved populations about vaccination.[122.1] These strategies are essential for overcoming barriers to vaccine access and ensuring that communities are informed and empowered to make vaccination decisions. Reports have identified six evidence-based strategies for improving vaccine acceptance among diverse racial and ethnic groups, emphasizing the need for culturally competent approaches.[125.1]In this section:
Types Of Vaccines
Live Attenuated and Inactivated Vaccines
Live-attenuated vaccines utilize a weakened form of the pathogen that causes a disease, allowing for a strong immune response without causing the disease itself. These vaccines typically require only one or two doses to provide long-lasting immunity, often resulting in a lifetime of protection against the targeted germ and the associated disease.[166.1] However, one limitation of live-attenuated vaccines is that they may necessitate booster shots to maintain ongoing protection, particularly as immunity can wane over time.[165.1] In contrast, inactivated vaccines contain pathogens that have been killed or inactivated, rendering them incapable of causing disease. While these vaccines can also stimulate an immune response, they often require multiple doses and booster shots to achieve and sustain adequate immunity.[131.1] The immune response elicited by inactivated vaccines may not be as robust or long-lasting as that produced by live-attenuated vaccines, necessitating careful consideration of vaccination schedules to ensure effective protection.[168.1] Both types of vaccines play crucial roles in immunization strategies, with live-attenuated vaccines generally providing a stronger and longer-lasting immune response compared to inactivated vaccines. Understanding the differences in immune responses between these vaccine types is essential for optimizing vaccination strategies and ensuring effective disease prevention.[168.1]mRNA and Subunit Vaccines
mRNA vaccines have emerged as a groundbreaking technology in the field of immunization, particularly highlighted during the COVID-19 pandemic. The rapid development and deployment of mRNA vaccines provided significant proof of concept regarding their capabilities and feasibility for human protection against infectious diseases. This technology allows for a swift response to public health emergencies, demonstrating its potential to address emerging infectious disease outbreaks effectively.[139.1] The widespread use of mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccines validated their real-world safety and efficacy, showcasing the scalability of this innovative approach, which was developed based on over 50 years of research.[136.1] In addition to mRNA vaccines, subunit vaccines represent another important category in vaccine technology. These vaccines utilize specific pieces of the virus, such as proteins, to stimulate an immune response without using live pathogens. This method can enhance safety and reduce the risk of adverse effects associated with live attenuated or inactivated vaccines. Emerging non-viral vaccine technologies, including subunit vaccines, are designed to address existing challenges in vaccine development, offering innovative solutions that complement traditional approaches.[137.1] The recent advancements in both mRNA and subunit vaccines underscore their distinct roles in public health strategies. For instance, the authorization of mRNA vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic has illustrated their rapid development potential, while subunit vaccines continue to be pivotal in providing safe and effective immunization options against various pathogens.[139.1] As research progresses, both types of vaccines are expected to play crucial roles in future vaccination campaigns, particularly in response to new and re-emerging infectious diseases.Vaccine Safety And Efficacy
Monitoring and Regulation
Vaccines undergo rigorous evaluation and monitoring to ensure their safety and efficacy before and after they are approved for public use. Regulatory bodies such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), European Medicines Agency (EMA), and World Health Organization (WHO) play critical roles in this process. Initially, vaccines are subjected to extensive clinical trials, which are closely monitored to ensure they meet ethical standards and demonstrate safety and efficacy.[180.1] The FDA, for instance, provides clear communication to vaccine developers regarding the scientific data required for safe and effective vaccines and evaluates the data to confirm that the vaccine's safety and effectiveness have been established.[180.1] Once a vaccine is approved, ongoing monitoring is essential to detect any long-term side effects or adverse events. National health authorities, in collaboration with organizations like WHO, continuously monitor vaccine safety through various systems. For example, the Vaccine Safety Datalink (VSD) in the United States allows for ongoing monitoring and proactive searches of vaccine-related data.[185.1] Additionally, the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) serves as a national surveillance system that collects reports of adverse events following vaccination.[185.1] The EMA also conducts post-market surveillance and has reported specific cases related to vaccine safety, such as the documentation of Guillain-Barré syndrome in relation to the AstraZeneca vaccine.[172.1] Furthermore, WHO assists countries in strengthening their vaccine safety monitoring systems, ensuring that any potential safety concerns are addressed promptly.[170.1]Public Health Impact
Herd Immunity
Herd immunity is a critical concept in public health, particularly in the context of vaccination programs aimed at controlling infectious diseases such as COVID-19. It refers to the indirect protection from infection that occurs when a significant portion of a population becomes immune to a disease, thereby reducing its spread. For COVID-19, health professionals estimate that approximately 70-90% of the population must be immune to achieve herd immunity, depending on the disease's contagiousness and the effectiveness of the vaccine used.[221.1] The effectiveness of vaccination programs in establishing herd immunity can be measured through various epidemiological studies that assess vaccine efficacy and effectiveness. These studies often face challenges, including biases that can affect the interpretation of data.[219.1] Specifically, the effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccinations is influenced by factors such as the basic reproductive number (Ro) of the virus, vaccination coverage, and the percentage of infections occurring among vaccinated individuals. For instance, research indicates that herd immunity against SARS-CoV-2 can be established with vaccination coverage ranging from 10% to 100%, depending on the effectiveness of the vaccine.[218.1] However, achieving the necessary vaccination coverage is complicated by vaccine hesitancy, which is particularly prevalent among the youngest (ages 0-11) and oldest (ages 80+) populations. This hesitancy poses a significant barrier to reaching the 90% vaccination coverage often required for herd immunity.[220.1] To combat this challenge, public health strategies have been proposed, including creating a sense of urgency around vaccination, offering incentives, and prioritizing vulnerable age groups to enhance overall vaccination rates.[220.1]Global Vaccination Efforts
Global vaccination efforts have significantly shaped public health outcomes, demonstrating the critical role of immunization in disease prevention and health promotion. Vaccination is recognized as one of the most successful public health interventions, effectively reducing the spread of diseases, preventing complications, and saving lives from vaccine-preventable diseases.[209.1] Over the past century, vaccines have dramatically decreased the incidence of diseases that once posed serious threats to public health, such as smallpox and polio, underscoring their importance in global health strategies.[56.1] Despite the successes achieved, challenges remain in vaccination coverage. Recent data indicate that approximately 20 million children worldwide are either undervaccinated or completely unvaccinated, highlighting a stagnation in progress that poses risks to public health.[213.1] This situation is exacerbated by factors such as vaccine hesitancy and inequities in access to vaccines, particularly in lower-income countries where new life-saving vaccines have been slow to reach populations.[229.1] To address these challenges, initiatives like the World Health Organization's Immunization Agenda 2030 (IA2030) have been launched, aiming to ensure that everyone, everywhere, benefits from vaccines throughout their lives.[211.1] This ambitious strategy emphasizes the need for resilient health systems capable of responding to infectious disease outbreaks and public health emergencies. Strong immunization programs not only protect communities but also contribute to the overall sustainability of health systems by enhancing their capacity to detect and manage health threats.[211.1] Historical vaccination campaigns provide valuable lessons for current public health policies. They illustrate the importance of community engagement, advocacy, and the use of data-driven decision-making to improve vaccination rates.[229.1] For instance, the decline in vaccination rates in certain regions, such as Florida, which has fallen to 88.1% for kindergartners, serves as a warning sign of potential outbreaks and emphasizes the need for targeted public health strategies to address vaccine hesitancy and improve uptake.[232.1]In this section:
Challenges And Controversies
Vaccine Misinformation
Misinformation about vaccines has become increasingly prevalent, particularly on social media platforms, leading to heightened levels of vaccine hesitancy that outpace the effectiveness of current interventions. A study conducted by researchers at Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health highlights the urgent need for close monitoring of public perceptions and opinions regarding vaccination to develop more effective countermeasures against misinformation.[256.1] The decline in social media platforms' commitment to combating vaccine misinformation since the pandemic has further complicated these efforts, underscoring the necessity for partnerships among researchers, healthcare clinics, and public health agencies to assess the impact of interventions on vaccination rates.[261.1] Community leaders and trusted sources of information are pivotal in vaccine advocacy and outreach, particularly in addressing the challenges posed by misinformation and cultural barriers.[257.1] Empowering community members, including community health workers and leaders, to take an active role in developing strategies and coordinating interventions can enhance vaccine uptake.[258.1] A systematic review of communication strategies aimed at countering vaccine misinformation has identified effective approaches that can inform public health communicators and policymakers.[260.1] These strategies focus on improving communication and media engagement to alter public attitudes and behaviors towards vaccination. The implications of vaccine misinformation are significant, as it has been shown to reduce the willingness of individuals to vaccinate, thereby exacerbating public health challenges related to vaccine-preventable diseases.[262.1] Research indicates that unflagged vaccine-skeptical content on social media can negatively impact vaccination rates, while the presence of third-party fact-checkers can mitigate this effect.[263.1] Addressing the concerns of parents regarding vaccine safety is also crucial, as fears about adverse effects, including unfounded links to autism, remain prevalent.[271.1] Pediatricians play a vital role in this context, as their communication style—favoring presumptive recommendations over participatory ones—has been shown to increase vaccine acceptance among hesitant parents.[270.1]Ethical and Political Considerations
Ethical and political considerations surrounding vaccination are complex and multifaceted, often influenced by public perception and historical context. Despite strong evidence supporting the safety and efficacy of vaccines, controversies persist, leading to skepticism among certain groups regarding their necessity and effectiveness.[250.1] This skepticism can result in decreased vaccine acceptance, which poses significant public health risks, including the resurgence of vaccine-preventable diseases.[251.1] The ethical implications of vaccination are particularly pronounced in discussions about informed consent and the right to refuse vaccination. Clinicians are urged to communicate the safety and effectiveness of vaccines clearly, while also respecting individual autonomy.[253.1] However, this balance can be challenging, especially in the face of misinformation that has proliferated through social media, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic.[255.1] The spread of false narratives has exacerbated vaccine hesitancy, necessitating proactive communication strategies that are empathetic and culturally competent.[255.1] Political factors also play a critical role in vaccination debates. Historical inequities in vaccine distribution, particularly between high-income and low-income countries, have led to disparities in immunization coverage and access to life-saving vaccines.[254.1] Addressing these inequities requires not only improvements in healthcare infrastructure but also a commitment to global partnerships and data-driven policy-making.[254.1] Furthermore, the scientific community must acknowledge its historical role in fostering vaccine hesitancy among underserved populations and work diligently to rebuild trust through targeted research and community engagement.[255.1]In this section:
Future Directions
Research and Development
Advancements in vaccine technology are pivotal in addressing infectious diseases, which account for approximately 40% of all recorded deaths globally. Researchers are focusing on various strategies, including modifying existing vaccines, developing new delivery technologies, and creating novel vaccines, to combat these challenges effectively.[291.1] The rapid development of vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic, with several being produced and implemented within a year, marks a significant shift from the previous average development time of ten years, showcasing the potential of modern vaccine technology to address not only COVID-19 but also other infectious diseases.[291.1] In the United States, the expansion of adult vaccination programs faces challenges due to the absence of a cohesive national immunization schedule. Currently, there exists a fragmented system of approved vaccines with recommendations that vary by disease, which complicates the consistent use of adult vaccinations.[292.1] This inconsistency is further highlighted by survey results indicating that both consumers and immunizers have differing expectations regarding the number of vaccines an adult would be willing to receive in a year.[292.1] Recent innovations in mRNA vaccine technology have opened new avenues for combating a variety of infectious diseases, including influenza and HIV, and have even been explored for cancer immunotherapy.[294.1] The mRNA platform, which was notably used in the development of COVID-19 vaccines, allows for rapid construction and deployment compared to traditional vaccines, which often require lengthy production processes involving live or inactivated pathogens.[302.1] The advantages of mRNA vaccines include their high potency, safety, efficacy, and the potential for rapid, low-cost manufacturing.[301.1] Moreover, significant advancements in mRNA technology have been made in areas such as the engineering of mRNA sequences, the development of efficient production methods, and the creation of safe delivery materials.[303.1] These innovations have demonstrated promising results in clinical trials for both infectious diseases and cancer, indicating a robust future for mRNA vaccines in public health.[304.1] The FDA's approval of mRNA vaccines against COVID-19 under Emergency Use Authorization within a year of identifying the virus's genetic sequence exemplifies the rapid progress in this field.[305.1] As the landscape of vaccine development evolves, the integration of big data analytics is expected to play a crucial role in enhancing vaccine delivery and public health strategies. This technology can help optimize allocation strategies to minimize morbidity and mortality associated with infectious diseases, thereby improving overall public health outcomes.[307.1]Global Access and Equity
Vaccination coverage in low-resource settings presents unique challenges that significantly impact the health of vulnerable populations, particularly children. These challenges are exacerbated by weak healthcare infrastructures, struggling economies, and logistical constraints, which hinder the achievement of high immunity levels.[320.1] The limited supply of vaccines and the projected shortages for 2022 further complicate efforts to enhance global access to essential vaccines, underscoring the need to balance efficacy and reach within resource constraints.[321.1] Community engagement and education are pivotal in improving vaccine uptake in these areas. Effective interventions include home visits for communication and vaccination, as well as facilitator visits to healthcare practices, which have been shown to increase vaccination rates among underserved populations.[296.1] Strategies that combine peer education with health expert involvement also show promise, although further research is needed to substantiate these approaches.[295.1] In developing countries, community engagement has been linked to positive vaccination behaviors. For instance, data from the 2021 Chinese General Social Survey indicated that community involvement significantly boosted COVID-19 and flu vaccination rates, particularly among individuals with poorer health and lower household wealth.[297.1] Addressing community concerns and misinformation through tailored communication plans is recommended to enhance vaccine acceptance.[298.1] The introduction of combination vaccines, which target multiple pathogens, holds potential for transforming vaccination efforts in low-resource settings. These vaccines could lead to significant reductions in antibiotic use among vaccinated children, addressing public health concerns related to antibiotic resistance.[319.1] However, achieving substantial reductions in antibiotic use may require widespread adoption of these combination vaccines.[319.1]References
[1] A guide to vaccinology: from basic principles to new developments - Nature — Advertisement View all journals Search Log in Explore content About the journal Publish with us Sign up for alerts RSS feed nature nature reviews immunology review articles article A guide to vaccinology: from basic principles to new developments Download PDF Download PDF Review Article Published: 22 December 2020 A guide to vaccinology: from basic principles to new developments Andrew J. Pollard ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7361-719X1,2 & Else M. Bijker1,2 Nature Reviews Immunology volume 21, pages 83–100 (2021)Cite this article 575k Accesses 3516 Altmetric Metrics details Subjects Infectious diseases Vaccines A Publisher Correction to this article was published on 05 January 2021 This article has been updated Abstract Immunization is a cornerstone of public health policy and is demonstrably highly cost-effective when used to protect child health. This Review provides an introductory overview of vaccines, immunization and related issues and thereby aims to inform a broad scientific audience about the underlying immunological concepts. Full size image Vaccines exploit the extraordinary ability of the highly evolved human immune system to respond to, and remember, encounters with pathogen antigens. In this Review, which is primarily aimed at a broad scientific audience, we provide a guide to the history (Box 1), development, immunological basis and remarkable impact of vaccines and immunization programmes on infectious diseases to provide insight into the key issues facing immunologists today. A vaccine is a biological product that can be used to safely induce an immune response that confers protection against infection and/or disease on subsequent exposure to a pathogen.
[2] Vaccines and immunization: What is vaccination? — Vaccination is a simple, safe, and effective way of protecting you against harmful diseases, before you come into contact with them. It uses your body’s natural defenses to build resistance to specific infections and makes your immune system stronger. However, because vaccines contain only killed or weakened forms of germs like viruses or bacteria, they do not cause the disease or put you at risk of its complications. Vaccines reduce risks of getting a disease by working with your body’s natural defenses to build protection. The vaccine is therefore a safe and clever way to produce an immune response in the body, without causing illness.
[3] Vaccine | Definition, Types, History, & Facts | Britannica — A vaccine delivery system is the means by which the immune-stimulating agent constituting the vaccine is packaged and administered into the human body to ensure that the vaccine reaches the desired tissue. A vaccine is a suspension of weakened, killed, or fragmented microorganisms or toxins or other biological preparation, such as those consisting of antibodies, lymphocytes, or mRNA, that is administered primarily to prevent disease.
[4] Vaccines | Immunization | Inoculation - MedlinePlus — Vaccines protect against life-threatening diseases. Follow a recommended immunization schedule to protect yourself and others at all stages of life. ... Summary. What are vaccines? Vaccines are injections (shots), liquids, pills, or nasal sprays that you take to teach your body's immune system to recognize and defend against harmful germs. For
[15] Virus-based vaccine vectors with distinct replication mechanisms ... — The precise mechanism by which many virus-based vectors activate immune responses remains unknown. Dendritic cells (DCs) play key roles in priming T cell responses and controlling virus
[17] Viral vector vaccines - PMC — Viral vector vaccines utilise the capacity of viruses to infect cells and induce broad immune responses. Heterologous antigens are expressed by the virus, usually from genes engineered into the viral genome, and induce antigen-specific humoral and cellular immune responses. Viral vectors themselves can be replication-deficient, replication-competent or attenuated. Replication of the virus
[18] Adenovirus vector and mRNA vaccines: Mechanisms regulating their ... — In addition to inducing immune responses towards the encoded transgene, Ad vector immunization elicits immunity against the viral particle itself. This immunity includes both anti‐vector antibodies and cellular immune responses , and both of these responses can independently impair vaccine immunogenicity.
[19] Developments in Viral Vector-Based Vaccines - PMC — Viral vectors are promising tools for gene therapy and vaccines. Viral vector-based vaccines can enhance immunogenicity without an adjuvant and induce a robust cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) response to eliminate virus-infected cells. During the last
[23] SARS-CoV-2 mRNA Vaccines: Immunological Mechanism and Beyond — In a study by Corbett et al., the authors reported that mice immunized with mRNA-1273 had predominant Th1 response (especially at the highest mRNA vaccine dose), measured by the production of Th1 cytokines IFNγ, TNF, and IL-2 by total CD4 T cells upon in vitro restimulation with SARS-CoV-2 peptide pools . However, a second dose of either mRNA vaccine formulation seems to be required to reach significant levels of nAbs. It is also important to note that only SARS-CoV-2-binding IgG titers and nAb titers were measured in these human trials, and that a deeper analysis of B cell responses post-vaccination will have to be conducted in humans to connect the clinical data with those generated in animal studies.
[24] Vaccine Types - HHS.gov — Vaccine Types | HHS.gov Vaccines by Disease Get Vaccinated Vaccine Types Vaccine Types Vaccines Protect You Vaccines by Disease Get Vaccinated Vaccine Types Live vaccines use a weakened (or attenuated) form of the germ that causes a disease. Just 1 or 2 doses of most live vaccines can give you a lifetime of protection against a germ and the disease it causes. Live vaccines are used to protect against: One limitation of these vaccines is that you may need booster shots to get ongoing protection against diseases. These vaccines are used to protect against: Like some other types of vaccines, you may need booster shots to get ongoing protection against diseases. Types of vaccines For more information on HHS's web notification policies, see Website Disclaimers.
[25] Understanding COVID-19 mRNA Vaccines — By injecting cells with a synthetic mRNA that encodes a viral spike protein, an mRNA vaccine can direct human cells to make a viral spike protein and evoke an immune response without a person ever having been exposed to the viral material.
[46] History of vaccination - PubMed — Vaccines have a history that started late in the 18th century. From the late 19th century, vaccines could be developed in the laboratory. However, in the 20th century, it became possible to develop vaccines based on immunologic markers. In the 21st century, molecular biology permits vaccine developm …
[47] A Brief History of Vaccination - World Health Organization (WHO) — Mass vaccinations begin with the World Health Organization announcing the Intensified Smallpox Eradication Programme. In 1967, the World Health Organization announces the Intensified Smallpox Eradication Programme, which aims to eradicate smallpox in more than 30 countries through surveillance and vaccination. In its first 5 years of use, the vaccine has nearly eliminated serogroup A meningococcal disease in meningitis belt countries of Africa, and it is now being integrated into routine national immunization programmes. WHO calls on Member States to prioritize vaccination against COVID-19 of health workers and at-risk groups in all countries. WHO calls on Member States to prioritize vaccination of health workers and at-risk groups in lower-income countries, in order to stop severe disease and death, keep health workers safe and reopen societies and economies.
[48] Timeline of human vaccines - Wikipedia — 1921 - First vaccine for tuberculosis by Albert Calmette ; 1923 - First vaccine for diphtheria by Gaston Ramon, Emil von Behring and Kitasato Shibasaburō; 1924 - First vaccine for scarlet fever by George F. Dick and Gladys Dick; 1924 - First inactive vaccine for tetanus (tetanus toxoid, TT) by Gaston Ramon, C. Zoeller and P. Descombey; 1926 - First vaccine for pertussis
[49] Vaccine | Definition, Types, History, & Facts | Britannica — A vaccine delivery system is the means by which the immune-stimulating agent constituting the vaccine is packaged and administered into the human body to ensure that the vaccine reaches the desired tissue. A vaccine is a suspension of weakened, killed, or fragmented microorganisms or toxins or other biological preparation, such as those consisting of antibodies, lymphocytes, or mRNA, that is administered primarily to prevent disease.
[56] From smallpox to polio: how vaccines changed the world — From smallpox to polio: how vaccines changed the world - MSU Denver RED “Nuclear weapons and war have killed fewer people than disease worldwide,” said William Parker III, Ph.D., an affiliate professor of History at Metropolitan State University of Denver. “Jenner’s vaccine for smallpox revolutionized public health because, for the first time, we had something to prevent disease rather than fight or treat it,” said Parker. “Today, we have subunit vaccines, mRNA, viral vector, conjugate vaccines — the science allows us to develop them much faster.” “With the way the population moves globally, vaccinating people in developing nations has just as much impact on our safety here as vaccinating people in the United States,” Parker said.
[59] State Strategies for Addressing Barriers During the Early US COVID-19 ... — Three key challenges for states emerged from reviews of state plans and the actual experience in the first weeks of the COVID-19 vaccination effort: (1) needing to balance speed, efficiency, equity, and protection of vulnerable populations; (2) expanding the vaccination workforce and state and local capacities to vaccinate; and (3) addressing
[60] Early Challenges Highlight Areas for Improvement in COVID-19 ... — CDC's COVID-19 vaccination program is an extension of these efforts. As vaccine supply increased in March 2021—during the early stages of COVID-19 vaccination programs—awardees faced challenges in meeting their goals of immunizing the U.S. population amid an ongoing pandemic.
[61] The World of Immunization: Achievements, Challenges, and Strategic ... — In the 1990s, immunization coverage stagnated and the slow introduction into lower-income countries of new life-saving vaccines, which were developed and implemented in many high-income countries (HICs), created serious inequities in protection from infectious disease threats to infant and child survival. Improvements in delivery infrastructure; vaccine-preventable disease surveillance and the requisite regional and global lab networks; ever growing community engagement and advocacy on the value of vaccines; more sophisticated information and social media platforms; electronic data collection, management, and use; vaccine research and development capacity; expansion and coordination of vaccine regulatory and safety monitoring systems; increasingly data-driven policy decision making at the country level; and global partnership all underpin this progress. Secretariat annual report 2018.https://www.who.int/immunization/global_vaccine_action_plan/web_gvap_secretariat_report_2018.pdf?ua=1. https://www.who.int/immunization/global_vaccine_action_plan/web_gvap_secretariat_report_2018.pdf?ua=1.
[62] State of immunity: The politics of vaccination in twentieth-century ... — A rise in antivaccination sentiment followed in the early years of the twentieth century accompanied by an increased public perception of adverse vaccination-related events (particularly in the absence of disease).
[64] Vaccine development: Current trends and technologies — Vaccine development: Current trends and technologies - ScienceDirect Search Search ScienceDirect Vaccine development: Current trends and technologies As well as traditional vaccine different methods such as inactivated or live attenuated vaccines, viral vector vaccines, and subunit vaccines, emerging non-viral vaccine technologies, including viral-like particle and nanoparticle vaccines, DNA/RNA vaccines, and rational vaccine design, offer new strategies to address the existing challenges in vaccine development. This review provides a comprehensive assessment of emerging non-viral vaccine production methods and their application in addressing the fundamental and current challenges in vaccine development. Various vaccines were swiftly developed and subjected to rigorous clinical trials. Recent advances in mRNA vaccine technology Vaccine technologies: from whole organisms to rationally designed protein assemblies New vaccine technologies to combat outbreak situations Single-cycle adenovirus vectors in the current vaccine landscape Virus-like particles: flexible platforms for vaccine development About ScienceDirect
[84] Meeting summary: Global vaccine and immunization research forum, 2023 — At the 2023 Global Vaccine and Immunization Research Forum (GVIRF), researchers from around the world gathered in the Republic of Korea to discuss advances and opportunities in vaccines and immunization. ... VLPs for mucosal administration, and mRNA-VLP combination vaccines. Recent advances in structure-based immunogen design have enabled
[88] Vaccine development: Current trends and technologies — Vaccine development: Current trends and technologies - ScienceDirect Search Search ScienceDirect Vaccine development: Current trends and technologies As well as traditional vaccine different methods such as inactivated or live attenuated vaccines, viral vector vaccines, and subunit vaccines, emerging non-viral vaccine technologies, including viral-like particle and nanoparticle vaccines, DNA/RNA vaccines, and rational vaccine design, offer new strategies to address the existing challenges in vaccine development. This review provides a comprehensive assessment of emerging non-viral vaccine production methods and their application in addressing the fundamental and current challenges in vaccine development. Various vaccines were swiftly developed and subjected to rigorous clinical trials. Recent advances in mRNA vaccine technology Vaccine technologies: from whole organisms to rationally designed protein assemblies New vaccine technologies to combat outbreak situations Single-cycle adenovirus vectors in the current vaccine landscape Virus-like particles: flexible platforms for vaccine development About ScienceDirect
[91] Identification of potential vaccines for use with microarray patches in ... — The COVID-19 pandemic has further highlighted the need for vaccine product innovations that improve ease of use; enable rapid, large-scale administration of vaccines during outbreak and/or pandemic response; and increase access to underserved populations, including hard-to-reach communities especially in conflict, vulnerable, or fragile settings.
[93] Vaccine Microarray Patches (VMAPs) - UNICEF — Vaccine Microarray Patches (VMAPs) VMAPs can increase vaccine coverage by increasing acceptability by caregivers and recipients, and administering vaccines more rapidly and easily with minimally trained health care workers.
[94] Exploring Important Attributes, the Potential Use Cases and ... - PubMed — Background: Microarray patches (MAPs) are innovative, needle-free vaccine delivery systems, suitable for administration by minimally trained health care workers or trained community health workers.Their introduction may transform immunization programmes, particularly for vaccines where high coverage is required for population immunity, such as measles, and where vaccine delivery is challenging
[95] Microarray patches for delivery of vaccines and essential medicines — PATH is collaborating with microarray patch (MAP) developers, vaccine and drug manufacturers, and other global stakeholders to evaluate and advance a range of MAPs at varying stages of product development, with the aim of improving access and equity in the delivery of vaccines and essential medicines in resource constrained settings.
[96] Recent advances in mRNA vaccine technology - PubMed — This optimism is built on recently published studies demonstrating the efficacy of mRNA vaccines in combatting several types of cancer and infectious pathogens where conventional vaccine plat … Recent advances in mRNA vaccine technology Curr Opin Immunol. 2020 Aug:65:14-20. doi: 10.1016/j.coi.2020.01.008. Epub 2020 Mar 31. Authors
[115] Community Engagement in Vaccination Promotion: Systematic Review and ... — Original research articles applying an experimental study design that investigated the effectiveness of community engagement in vaccination promotion were eligible for inclusion. The random effects meta-analysis of pre-post intervention effects revealed a moderate positive effect size of community engagement on promoting vaccination rates (RD 0.34, 95% CI 0.21-0.47, _I_2\=99.9%, _P_CQ<.001; Figure 2, see also [29,41-59]). Similarly, the random effects meta-analysis of between-group intervention effects showed a small positive effect size of community engagement on promoting vaccination rates (RD 0.18, 95% CI 0.07-0.29, _I_2\=98.4%, _P_CQ<.001; Figure 2). This study reported that community engagement strategies resulted in a 34% increase in vaccination rates through a pre-post intervention effect analysis and an 18% increase in vaccination rates through a between-group intervention effect analysis.
[117] Enhancing vaccination uptake through community engagement: evidence ... — While previous studies have linked community engagement to positive health outcomes, there is a gap in understanding its influence on individual vaccination choices, particularly in the context of developing countries. Utilizing data from the 2021 Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS), this study examines the impact of community engagement on COVID-19 and flu vaccination uptake among 7281 individuals. This study underscores the effectiveness of community engagement strategies in promoting positive vaccination behavior among individuals in China. Specifically, regarding COVID-19 vaccination, community engagement appears particularly effective for groups with poorer health, lower household wealth, and residing in eastern China.
[118] Role of community engagement in advancing vaccine equity — For NVEC, four key factors drove its development and necessity: (1) the COVID-19 pandemic amplified existing health disparities and inequities throughout the state, (2) data revealed that communities disproportionately impacted by the pandemic were the least likely to get vaccinated once the COVID-19 vaccines were available, (3) the Nevada state governor called-to-action a task force to work toward COVID-19 vaccine equity, and (4) there was funding readily available to support this type of effort. NVEC’s activities included providing sub-grants to community partners to support their on-the-ground vaccine equity efforts, developing a communication and dissemination model that could guide statewide vaccine equity efforts called Approaches to Vaccine Equity, providing data- and community-informed recommendations to organizations that are leading COVID mitigation and vaccination efforts across the state, developing culturally and linguistically responsive COVID-19 resources, conducting outreach and education within impacted communities, addressing policies that created barriers to access vaccines, and planning pop-up vaccine clinics in impacted communities.
[119] Community-based participatory research (CBPR) approaches in vaccination ... — According to the CBPR conceptual model, the elements in each CBPR component specifically for vaccination promotion included (1) the establishment of community–academic partnership (CAP)s, (2) community capacity building by partner training vaccination knowledge, research literacy, and service abilities and skills, (3) development and implementation of community-based intervention and (4) Outcome evaluation. Two research questions were addressed in this scoping review: how the CBPR approach was used in community-based vaccination promotion programmes, that is, what were the key elements of CBPR in the vaccination promotion programmes, such as types of community partners, participation phases, and strategies for establishing and maintaining a CAP; community partners training components; development and implementation of the programmes; and outcome evaluation.
[122] Toolkit: Addressing Vaccine Equity Through Community Mobilization — Toolkit provides health departments and community-based organizations resources on community-centered outreach to increase vaccine uptake among underserved populations. The toolkit includes strategies for sustaining and leveraging community partnerships, recommendations for countering misinformation, and examples of best practices from agencies focusing on specific communities.
[125] PDF — This article examines the challenges faced by underserved communities in accessing vaccines and explores effective strategies for engaging these populations in vaccination efforts. Keywords: Underserved populations • Vaccine access • Health equity • Community engagement • Public health • Socioeconomic barriers • Cultural competence Bridging the Gap: Engaging Underserved Populations in Vaccine Access Efforts Cleo Sterling* Department of Pharmaceutical Care, University of Heidelberg, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany *Address for Correspondence: Cleo Sterling, Department of Pharmaceutical Care, University of Heidelberg, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany; E-mail: sterling@cleo.gr Copyright: © 2024 Sterling C. By implementing inclusive, culturally responsive strategies that address the diverse needs and barriers faced by underserved communities, we can overcome disparities in vaccine access and promote health equity for all.
[131] Vaccine | Definition, Types, History, & Facts | Britannica — A vaccine delivery system is the means by which the immune-stimulating agent constituting the vaccine is packaged and administered into the human body to ensure that the vaccine reaches the desired tissue. A vaccine is a suspension of weakened, killed, or fragmented microorganisms or toxins or other biological preparation, such as those consisting of antibodies, lymphocytes, or mRNA, that is administered primarily to prevent disease.
[136] Advances in Vaccine Technology - IQVIA — Building on a rich history of developing AI for healthcare, IQVIA AI connects the right data, technology, and expertise to address the unique needs of healthcare. The IQVIA Human Data Science Cloud is our unique capability designed to enable healthcare-grade analytics, tools, and data management solutions to deliver fit-for-purpose global data at scale. The IQVIA Human Data Science Cloud is our unique capability designed to enable healthcare-grade analytics, tools, and data management solutions to deliver fit-for-purpose global data at scale. The widespread use of mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccines validated the real-world safety, efficacy and scalability of this technology, which was given emergency use authorization some 7 months after initial clinical trial dosing, yet was based on more than 50 years of research.
[137] Emerging Concepts and Technologies in Vaccine Development — Besides the traditional inactivated or live attenuated, virus-vectored and subunit vaccines, emerging non-viral vaccine technologies, such as viral-like particle and nanoparticle vaccines, DNA/RNA vaccines, and rational vaccine design, offer innovative approaches to address existing challenges of vaccine development.
[139] (PDF) mRNA-based vaccines for rapid response to emerging infectious ... — This review examines the transformative role of mRNA vaccines in responding to emerging infectious disease outbreaks, with a focus on their unique mechanisms, rapid development potential, and
[165] Comparing the immune response and protective effect of COVID-19 vaccine ... — It is a natural part of the immune response that the immune protection induced by either type of vaccine will fade over time after vaccination. Booster immunity is a vaccine dose that is administered after completion of the vaccination and supplemented according to the waning of antibodies to maintain the body's immunity to SARS-CoV-2.
[166] Vaccine Types - HHS.gov — Vaccine Types | HHS.gov Vaccines by Disease Get Vaccinated Vaccine Types Vaccine Types Vaccines Protect You Vaccines by Disease Get Vaccinated Vaccine Types Live vaccines use a weakened (or attenuated) form of the germ that causes a disease. Just 1 or 2 doses of most live vaccines can give you a lifetime of protection against a germ and the disease it causes. Live vaccines are used to protect against: One limitation of these vaccines is that you may need booster shots to get ongoing protection against diseases. These vaccines are used to protect against: Like some other types of vaccines, you may need booster shots to get ongoing protection against diseases. Types of vaccines For more information on HHS's web notification policies, see Website Disclaimers.
[168] Comparison of antigen-specific B cell responses reveals disparity in ... — Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the immune responses induced by different types of vaccines is necessary when considering the choice of vaccine formats. For COVID-19, it has been shown that neutralizing antibody levels correlate well with immune protection, suggesting that humoral immunity plays a major role in defense against the
[170] Vaccines and immunization: Vaccine safety - World Health Organization (WHO) — Health authorities carefully evaluate the results of these trials to help ensure that the vaccine meets the highest safety and efficacy standards before being considered suitable for use. Once vaccines are introduced and used in countries, national health authorities continuously monitor vaccine safety to detect and immediately respond to potential concerns. WHO assists countries in strengthening vaccine safety monitoring and response systems. In prequalification, WHO independently assesses evidence on the quality, safety, and efficacy of vaccines and other medical products, helping ensure that only those that meet stringent international standards are used in public health programs. How is vaccine safety monitored? Events that are reported to WHO are evaluated by an independent group of experts (the Global Advisory Committee on Vaccine Safety, or GACVS).
[172] A focused review on technologies, mechanisms, safety, and efficacy of ... — It is noteworthy that EMA continues its study on the safety and efficacy of AstraZeneca/Oxford vaccine. On 8th September 2021, EMA released a COVID-19 vaccine safety update on Vaxzervia® vaccine. It has been reported that Guillain-Barré syndrome was documented in 833 cases out of 592 million doses of Vaxzervia® injection.
[180] How Do Regulatory Bodies Ensure Vaccine Safety? — Regulatory bodies such as the FDA, EMA, and WHO play a pivotal role in ensuring vaccine safety: - Clinical Trials Oversight: They monitor clinical trials to ensure they meet ethical standards. - Post-Market Surveillance: Continuously monitor vaccines even after approval to detect any long-term side effects. - Batch Testing: Each batch of vaccine is tested for purity, potency, and safety before
[185] Surveillance systems and methods for monitoring the post-marketing ... — The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) uses two systems to monitor the safety of influenza vaccines: 1) the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) which is a front-line, national, spontaneous surveillance system that receives reports of adverse events (AEs) following vaccination in the United States; and 2) the Vaccine
[209] Benefits and Risks of Vaccines | South Carolina Department of Public Health — All medications and vaccines have potential risks that must be carefully weighed against the benefits they offer to prevent illness. Vaccination is one of the most successful public health interventions in reducing disease spread, preventing complications, and even deaths, from vaccine preventable diseases. The success of vaccines in reducing disease should not suggest that vaccine-preventable
[211] Counting the impact of vaccines - World Health Organization (WHO) — To maximize the lifesaving impact of immunization over the next decade, WHO and its partners are launching the Immunization Agenda 2030 (IA2030), an ambitious global strategy that envisions a world where everyone, everywhere, at every age fully benefits from vaccines for good health and well-being. Immunized communities are resistant to infectious disease outbreaks, and strong health systems and immunization programmes can rapidly detect and limit the impact of infectious diseases. They contribute to resilient, sustainable health systems that can respond to outbreaks, public health risks and emergencies_._6 A recent study found that a 10% increase in these core capacities (e.g., surveillance and risk communication) is associated with a 20% decrease in the incidence of cross-border infectious disease threats.6
[213] The Critical Public Health Value of Vaccines - NCBI Bookshelf — Immunization against disease is among the most successful global health efforts of the modern era, and substantial gains in vaccination coverage rates have been achieved worldwide. However, that progress has stagnated in recent years, leaving an estimated 20 million children worldwide either undervaccinated or completely unvaccinated. The determinants of vaccination uptake are complex, mutable
[218] Percentages of Vaccination Coverage Required to Establish Herd Immunity ... — COVID-19 vaccination could establish herd immunity against SARS-CoV-2 with Ro values ranging from 1.1 to 10, percentages of vaccination coverage of 10–100%, and levels of vaccination effectiveness of 10–100%, when 9.8% of infections occur among vaccinated individuals. Figure 5 and Supplementary Materials Table S4 present the percentages of vaccination coverage required to establish herd immunity against SARS-CoV-2 for levels of COVID-19 vaccination effectiveness from 10% to 100% in a population with a prevalence of protected individuals of 20% and 9.8% infections among vaccinated individuals. Table S3: Critical vaccination coverage (Vc) required to establish herd immunity against SARS-CoV-2 with different basic reproductive numbers (Ro) by COVID-19 vaccination effectiveness, with 10% of individuals protected and 9.8% of infections among vaccinated individuals.
[219] [Herd immunity and effectiveness of vaccination] - PubMed — The effectiveness of vaccinations is discussed in relation to vaccine efficacy and effectiveness of vaccination programs. The types of epidemiological studies used in the assessment of vaccine effectiveness are presented, and most common sources of bias in such studies are listed. Basic formulas for …
[220] Frontiers | Predicting herd immunity achievement: a time-series ... — Vaccine hesitancy is most prevalent among the youngest (0-11) and oldest (80+) age groups, posing a challenge to reaching 90% vaccination coverage. Conclusion: Vaccine hesitancy is a major obstacle to herd immunity. Effective strategies include creating urgency, offering incentives, and prioritizing vulnerable age groups.
[221] The Relationship Between Vaccines and Herd Immunity — The Relationship Between Vaccines and Herd Immunity | Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health In cases where vaccinations cannot get to every person in the population, herd immunity makes it difficult for the disease to spread from person to person, protecting those that cannot access vaccinations. Depending on the nature and level of contagion of a given disease, public health professionals will determine the total percentage of people in a population that must receive the vaccine to help facilitate herd immunity. In the case of COVID-19, health professionals estimate 70-90% of the population must be immune in order to achieve herd immunity. The CDC and other experts are continuously studying herd immunity and the total percentage of people who will require vaccinations to achieve it.
[229] The World of Immunization: Achievements, Challenges, and Strategic ... — In the 1990s, immunization coverage stagnated and the slow introduction into lower-income countries of new life-saving vaccines, which were developed and implemented in many high-income countries (HICs), created serious inequities in protection from infectious disease threats to infant and child survival. Improvements in delivery infrastructure; vaccine-preventable disease surveillance and the requisite regional and global lab networks; ever growing community engagement and advocacy on the value of vaccines; more sophisticated information and social media platforms; electronic data collection, management, and use; vaccine research and development capacity; expansion and coordination of vaccine regulatory and safety monitoring systems; increasingly data-driven policy decision making at the country level; and global partnership all underpin this progress. Secretariat annual report 2018.https://www.who.int/immunization/global_vaccine_action_plan/web_gvap_secretariat_report_2018.pdf?ua=1. https://www.who.int/immunization/global_vaccine_action_plan/web_gvap_secretariat_report_2018.pdf?ua=1.
[232] Declining Vaccination Rates and Increasing Disease Outbreaks are a ... — The Impact of Declining Vaccination Rates. This year, the U.S. has seen a variety of disease outbreaks tied to declining vaccination rates. Currently, the CDC estimates that more than 250,000 kindergartners are potentially not protected against measles. ... Parental vaccine hesitancy might be contributing to the low levels of influenza
[250] Controversies and challenges of vaccination: an interview with ... — Although strong evidence exists that the benefits of vaccination by far outweigh potential adverse events, controversy still exists. This has led opponents of vaccination to question its safety, efficacy and necessity. In an interview with Professor Elizabeth Miller, we discuss the continuum of beliefs held by vaccine refusers and hesitators, the resulting health consequences, and ways in
[251] Principal Controversies in Vaccine Safety in the United States — Abstract. Concerns about vaccine safety can lead to decreased acceptance of vaccines and resurgence of vaccine-preventable diseases. We summarize the key evidence on some of the main current vaccine safety controversies in the United States, including (1) measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine and autism; (2) thimerosal, a mercury-based vaccine preservative and the risk of neurodevelopmental
[253] Vaccinations: Why All the Controversy? - Yale School of Public Health — "Without further polarizing the public, clinicians, who are the front lines, need to keep repeating the fact that vaccines are safe, effective, and recommended." In the case of the HPV vaccine for human papillomavirus, the controversy took an unfortunate turn when the vaccine first became available.
[254] The World of Immunization: Achievements, Challenges, and Strategic ... — In the 1990s, immunization coverage stagnated and the slow introduction into lower-income countries of new life-saving vaccines, which were developed and implemented in many high-income countries (HICs), created serious inequities in protection from infectious disease threats to infant and child survival. Improvements in delivery infrastructure; vaccine-preventable disease surveillance and the requisite regional and global lab networks; ever growing community engagement and advocacy on the value of vaccines; more sophisticated information and social media platforms; electronic data collection, management, and use; vaccine research and development capacity; expansion and coordination of vaccine regulatory and safety monitoring systems; increasingly data-driven policy decision making at the country level; and global partnership all underpin this progress. Secretariat annual report 2018.https://www.who.int/immunization/global_vaccine_action_plan/web_gvap_secretariat_report_2018.pdf?ua=1. https://www.who.int/immunization/global_vaccine_action_plan/web_gvap_secretariat_report_2018.pdf?ua=1.
[255] Meeting the Challenge of Vaccine Hesitancy — It requires that we provide accurate information and counter false narratives through education, public awareness campaigns, and proactive communication strategies, while remaining empathetic and culturally competent.6 During the COVID-19 pandemic, vaccine hesitancy was fueled by baseless claims that spread rapidly through social media. Investing in research, especially targeting vulnerable groups such as BIPOC, children and pregnant individuals, is crucial to counter vaccine hesitancy.26 The scientific community must acknowledge its role in historical and contemporary vaccine hesitancy among underserved populations and work to rebuild trust in clinical research.26-27 Researchers should address epidemiologic and socioeconomic factors associated with vaccine hesitancy risk, explore innovative vaccine delivery methods and technologies, and maintain apolitical research to prevent misinformation.
[256] Vaccine Misinformation Outpaces Efforts to Counter It — Misinformation about vaccines has proliferated on social media where it has led to rising levels of vaccine hesitancy at a faster rate than interventions are addressing it, according to a study led by a researcher at Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health. Lead author Kai Ruggeri, PhD, professor of health policy and management at Columbia Mailman School, and his co-authors argue that a crucial step towards developing more effective interventions is the close monitoring of public perceptions and opinions about vaccination. (Unfortunately, these partnerships face a headwind of social media platforms’ declining interest in vaccine misinformation countermeasures since the height of the pandemic—none more so than X, formerlly Twitter.) Also important are partnerships between researchers, health care clinics, and public health agencies, to understand the effects of interventions on vaccinations.
[257] Empowering Communities: The Crucial Role of Vaccine Advocacy and ... — The Role of Community Leaders and Trusted Sources: Community leaders and trusted sources of information play a crucial role in vaccine advocacy and outreach. Amid a multitude of challenges, including misinformation and cultural barriers, these leaders serve as beacons of trust and reliability within their communities.
[258] Leading from the frontlines: community-oriented approaches for ... — Community ownership is an approach that strives to empower all members of a community, including community health workers (CHWs), community leaders, parent and child caregivers, and others, to take a leading role in developing strategies and coordinating interventions . With disruptions on both the supply and demand sides of vaccine uptake
[260] How to tackle vaccine misinformation: what works? - NIHR Evidence — These and other findings come from a review of 34 studies into communication strategies to tackle untruths about vaccines. The analysis informs public health communicators and policy makers about promising strategies to tackle vaccine misinformation. Researchers reviewed evidence on communication strategies used to tackle vaccine misinformation and to promote changes in people’s behaviours and attitudes to vaccination. The studies examined the effect of different communication strategies on people’s intention to get vaccinated, their vaccine-related beliefs, knowledge, and attitudes. The analysis may help public health communicators and policy makers develop strategies to tackle vaccine misinformation and target their communications effectively. Funding: This study is funded by the NIHR Health Protection Research Unit in Vaccines and Immunisation.
[261] Vaccine Misinformation Outpaces Efforts to Counter It — Misinformation about vaccines has proliferated on social media where it has led to rising levels of vaccine hesitancy at a faster rate than interventions are addressing it, according to a study led by a researcher at Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health. Lead author Kai Ruggeri, PhD, professor of health policy and management at Columbia Mailman School, and his co-authors argue that a crucial step towards developing more effective interventions is the close monitoring of public perceptions and opinions about vaccination. (Unfortunately, these partnerships face a headwind of social media platforms’ declining interest in vaccine misinformation countermeasures since the height of the pandemic—none more so than X, formerlly Twitter.) Also important are partnerships between researchers, health care clinics, and public health agencies, to understand the effects of interventions on vaccinations.
[262] Countering vaccine misinformation: Designing a learning resource for ... — The implications for vaccine-preventable diseases could be even more significant, as vaccines are a predominating topic of health misinformation found online and in social media platforms . Infodemics and false information have had an array of effects on population health, including reducing willingness to vaccinate .
[263] Quantifying the impact of misinformation and vaccine ... - Science — Fortunately, the impact of flagrant vaccine misinformation on Facebook was greatly attenuated once such posts were flagged and debunked as false by third-party fact-checkers. ... we estimated that unflagged vaccine-skeptical content lowered vaccination rates by −2.28 percentage points {confidence interval (CI): [−3.4, −0.99]} per US
[270] Talking with Vaccine Hesitant Parents - American Academy of Pediatrics — Pediatricians are an important first resource for parents and caregivers who are worried about their child's emotional and behavioral health or who want to promote healthy mental development. Home / Patient Care / Immunizations / Communicating with Families and Promoting Vaccine Confidence / Talking with Vaccine Hesitant Parents Provide parents with Vaccine Information Statements, educational resources, and reliable websites. Parents include their pediatrician as a source of information to help decide about their child's health care. Most parents vaccinate their children. Researchers found that pediatricians who provided a "presumptive recommendation" – informed parents that shots were due, rather than a "participatory recommendation" – asking what the parent thought about shots, were more likely to see parents accept vaccines.
[271] Questions Parents May Ask about Vaccines - CDC — Questions Parents May Ask about Vaccines | Childhood Vaccines | CDC Questions Parents May Ask about Vaccines Because vaccines are very effective, many parents have not seen a case of a vaccine-preventable disease firsthand. Remind parents that many vaccine-preventable diseases can be especially dangerous for young children and there is no way to tell in advance if their child will get a severe or mild case. It is reasonable for parents to be concerned about possible reactions or side effects of vaccines. Remind parents that the disease-prevention benefits of getting vaccines are much greater than the risks of possible side effects. Share that vaccines are not linked to increases in health problems such as autism, asthma, or auto-immune diseases.
[291] 5. What does the future hold for vaccination? — Advances in vaccine technology are crucial to limit and prevent infectious diseases around the world, which still account for around 40% of all recorded deaths globally.68 Changing how existing vaccines are used, developing new vaccine delivery technologies and generating new vaccines are some of the ways researchers are working to overcome this ongoing challenge and save lives.69 Several vaccines were produced and implemented in vaccination programs globally within the first year after the onset of the pandemic, compared with the previous average vaccine development time of 10 years.83 This reflects advances in vaccine technology that will assist us with other infectious diseases, not just COVID-19.
[292] Exploring the future adult vaccine landscape—crowded schedules and new ... — The adoption of expanding adult vaccines will be challenging in light of a lack of an existing cohesive national adult immunization schedule in the U.S. What currently exists is a category of approved products with recommendations governing their individual/disease area usage, which unfortunately may result in fragmented and inconsistent usage of adult vaccinations beyond what has already been established in the market (e.g., Influenza, Pneumo, Shingles). Consumers were asked “what is the maximum number of different vaccines you would be willing to receive in a year (some possibly requiring several appointments)?” Immunizers were asked “what is the maximum number of vaccines you expect an individual adult patient would be willing to receive in a year?” Results presented are for a “typical” patient with regard to vaccine attitudes, or one who is “busy” (e.g., working full-time).
[294] Top 10 Healthcare Advancements in 2023: A Comprehensive Overview — In 2023, researchers expanded mRNA vaccine technology to target a range of infectious diseases like influenza and HIV, and even explored its potential in cancer immunotherapy. ... CRISPR technology achieved new milestones in 2023. Beyond gene knockout, advances in base editing allowed precise modifications, opening doors to treating previously
[295] Do peer-based education interventions effectively improve vaccination ... — Conclusions: Despite reported positive effects of using peer-education based initiatives to improve vaccine uptake and beliefs, this systematic review reveals that there is limited existing research in support of this strategy. The strategies that initially appear the most effect are those with a combined peer and health-expert approach, and
[296] Interventions to increase vaccination in vulnerable groups: rapid ... — In November 2022 we searched four databases for systematic reviews that included RCTs evaluating any intervention to increase vaccination in underserved, minority or vulnerable groups; our primary outcome was vaccination. Evidence supported interventions including: home visits to communicate/educate and to vaccinate, and facilitator visits to practices (high intensity); telephone calls to communicate/educate, remind/book appointments (medium intensity); letters, postcards or text messages to communicate/educate, remind/book appointments and reminder/recall interventions for practices (low intensity). This rapid overview of reviews was undertaken to identify and assess the evidence for effectiveness of interventions to increase vaccination in underserved, minority or vulnerable groups. We identified 23 systematic reviews which included RCTs of interventions to increase vaccination in vulnerable groups.
[297] Enhancing vaccination uptake through community engagement: evidence ... — While previous studies have linked community engagement to positive health outcomes, there is a gap in understanding its influence on individual vaccination choices, particularly in the context of developing countries. Utilizing data from the 2021 Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS), this study examines the impact of community engagement on COVID-19 and flu vaccination uptake among 7281 individuals. This study underscores the effectiveness of community engagement strategies in promoting positive vaccination behavior among individuals in China. Specifically, regarding COVID-19 vaccination, community engagement appears particularly effective for groups with poorer health, lower household wealth, and residing in eastern China.
[298] PDF — Embed-ding messaging about community concerns and ad-dressing their needs can improve vaccine uptake. In addition, an approach to respond to anti-vaccine misin-formation is recommended as communication plans are developed.
[301] A Comprehensive Review of mRNA Vaccines - PubMed — mRNA vaccines have been demonstrated as a powerful alternative to traditional conventional vaccines because of their high potency, safety and efficacy, capacity for rapid clinical development, and potential for rapid, low-cost manufacturing. These vaccines have progressed from being a mere curiosity …
[302] What Makes an RNA Vaccine Different From a Conventional Vaccine? — In 2020, messenger RNA, or mRNA for short, was the platform used to develop some COVID-19 vaccines, including the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine. Unlike conventional vaccines, which can take months to produce by growing weakened forms of the virus, RNA vaccines can be constructed quickly using only the pathogen's genetic code.
[303] Recent advances in mRNA vaccine technology - ScienceDirect — Recent advances in mRNA vaccine technology - ScienceDirect This optimism is built on recently published studies demonstrating the efficacy of mRNA vaccines in combatting several types of cancer and infectious pathogens where conventional vaccine platforms may fail to induce protective immune responses. The most important innovations in mRNA vaccine technology in recent years have been in the areas of: 1) engineering of mRNA sequences, 2) development of methods that enable simple, rapid and large-scale cGMP production of mRNA; and 3) development of highly efficient and safe mRNA vaccine delivery materials. Data from human trials for both cancer and infectious disease mRNA vaccines are encouraging, but further improvements of the delivery materials and a more complete understanding of the Modified mRNA-based vaccines elicit robust immune responses and protect guinea pigs from Ebola virus disease mRNA vaccines for infectious diseases: principles, delivery and clinical translation
[304] mRNA vaccine sequence and structure design and optimization: Advances ... — Recent advances in messenger RNA (mRNA) technology have enabled the delivery of antigen-encoding mRNA molecules into host cells, ... The rapid advancement of mRNA vaccine technology has provided an increasingly promising tool against infectious diseases and cancers. While mRNA vaccines have demonstrated significant success in preventing COVID
[305] Revolutionizing immunization: a comprehensive review of mRNA vaccine ... — Revolutionizing immunization: a comprehensive review of mRNA vaccine technology and applications - PMC The FDA approved the mRNA vaccines against COVID-19 under an Emergency Use Authorization less than one year after identifying the sequence of the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 . However, advances in chemical modifications of nucleotide components of mRNA, utilizing optimized delivery vehicles such as lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), and improved manufacturing processes have addressed these challenges, setting the stage for developing new vaccines with real-world applications. mRNA vaccines mRNA-based vaccine designing against Epstein-Barr virus to induce an immune response using immunoinformatic and molecular modelling approaches. Modified mRNA/lipid nanoparticle-based vaccines expressing respiratory syncytial virus F protein variants are immunogenic and protective in rodent models of RSV infection.
[307] Big data analytics and COVID-19 vaccine - ScienceDirect — Role of big data analytics in vaccine delivery, risk-reduction measures by secure storage and dispatch systems. ... To ensure that every subsequent allocation strategy advances the intended public health objectives for COVID-19 vaccination: namely, to minimize morbidity and mortality loss, avoid economic harms from the pandemic, and narrow
[319] Challenges and opportunities in developing a Shigella-containing ... — Vaccines for enteric pathogens could result in up to 8-12 prevented courses of antibiotics per 100 vaccinated children per year. Combination vaccines will probably be necessary to achieve greater than 1% reductions in total antibiotic use among children in similar low-resource settings.
[320] Vaccination Coverage in Low-Resource Settings | Vaccines Conference ... — Vaccination coverage is a major public health challenge in low-resource settings, where it directly and indirectly impacts the health of vulnerable populations, particularly children. In many resource-poor areas, obstacles to achieving high immunity levels include weak healthcare infrastructures, struggling economies, and logistical constraints.
[321] Resource allocation for different types of vaccines against COVID-19 ... — Limited vaccine supply in resource limited settings and estimated vaccine shortage for 2022 are real daily life challenges that we have to resolve to improve the global access to life-saving pandemic vaccine , . Hence, there is often a tradeoff between efficacy and reach across different vaccines because the resource requirements impact the