Table of Contents
Overview
Definition of Virology
Virology is defined as the branch of science that focuses on the study of viruses, encompassing various aspects such as their characteristics, molecular biology, structure, and interactions with host organisms. This field of microbiology investigates not only the viral particles, which consist of genetic material encased in a protein coat, but also the viral diseases they cause and the evolutionary history of viruses.[3.1] Virology is particularly significant due to its implications for human health, as many diseases—including smallpox, influenza, the common cold, and AIDS—are caused by viruses.[4.1] Additionally, virology addresses the epidemiology of viruses and the methods employed to prevent viral infections.[3.1]Importance of Virology in Science and Medicine
Virology plays a crucial role in both science and medicine, particularly in understanding and combating viral diseases. The development of effective vaccination strategies is a significant aspect of virology, especially in response to emerging and re-emerging viral threats. Vaccines are considered essential for disease prevention, as they can mitigate the impact of infections that often have limited medical options available or lead to rapid clinical deterioration.[7.1] For instance, a vaccination strategy implemented for healthcare workers resulted in only sporadic cases of Ebola virus disease (EVD) among them, highlighting the effectiveness of immunization in controlling outbreaks.[5.1] Moreover, the structural components of viruses, such as their nucleic acids and proteins, are fundamental to their ability to infect host cells and evade the immune system. The viral capsid, composed of protein subunits, protects the viral genome and facilitates attachment to host cells, which is critical for viral entry and replication.[11.1] Understanding these structural elements is vital for developing new treatments and vaccines against viral infections, as they inform how viruses interact with host cells.[12.1] Respiratory viral infections are a significant health concern, affecting both children and adults worldwide. These infections are caused by a variety of viruses, which are primarily transmitted through respiratory means among humans, and occasionally from animals to humans.[21.1] Clinically, respiratory infections can be categorized by the specific virus responsible, such as influenza, or by the syndrome they produce, including the common cold, bronchiolitis, croup, and pneumonia.[22.1] The symptoms associated with mild upper respiratory tract infections (MURTIs) are largely a result of the immune response to these viral agents, and they tend to be similar across different viral strains, including those that cause the common cold and influenza.[23.1] However, the clinical presentations of these infections often overlap, making it challenging to define specific diseases.[24.1] Treatment options for viral respiratory infections are generally supportive, as there are limited safe and effective antiviral therapies available.[25.1] The study of virology also encompasses the intricate processes involved in the viral replication cycle, which includes stages such as attachment, penetration, replication, assembly, and release of new virions.[35.1] Each stage is critical for the virus's success in infecting a host and highlights the complexity of viral life cycles. By advancing our knowledge in these areas, virology contributes significantly to public health initiatives and the development of therapeutic strategies aimed at controlling viral diseases.History
Early Discoveries in Virology
The early discoveries in virology laid the groundwork for significant advancements in public health and vaccine development. One of the pivotal figures in this field was Edward Jenner, who is renowned for pioneering the concept of vaccination. In 1796, Jenner demonstrated that immunity to smallpox could be achieved through the use of cowpox, a less harmful virus, thereby establishing fundamental principles of vaccination that continue to underpin modern vaccine development.[80.1] His innovative approach not only revolutionized preventive medicine but also provided a means to combat smallpox, marking a significant turning point in disease prevention and paving the way for modern immunology.[80.1] The impact of Jenner's work extended beyond smallpox; by 1803, his findings were translated into French and Spanish, leading to a vaccination campaign initiated by the King of Spain that spread to the Americas and the Far East.[79.1] This global dissemination of vaccination practices underscored the importance of Jenner's contributions to public health, which have continued to influence vaccine development strategies and public health policies.[81.1] The lessons learned from Jenner's work remain relevant today, particularly as public health professionals address emerging challenges such as vaccine hesitancy and the need for vaccines against newly identified pathogens.[81.1] In addition to Jenner, the history of virology encompasses various eras, including the discovery of viruses as distinct entities, the association of major human diseases with specific viruses, and the development of methods for virus isolation and characterization.[59.1] These foundational discoveries have shaped public health responses to viral outbreaks, as evidenced by the lessons learned from pandemics such as the Spanish flu of 1918-1919, which prompted the establishment of the Federal Department of Health in Canada and highlighted the necessity of coordinated public health efforts.[61.1] Similarly, the COVID-19 pandemic has reinforced the importance of early response and mitigation strategies, leading to advancements in sanitation, isolation, quarantine, and vaccine development.[60.1]Milestones in Virology Development
The history of virology, which encompasses the scientific study of viruses and the infections they cause, began in the closing years of the 19th century. Although early pioneers such as Edward Jenner and Louis Pasteur developed the first vaccines to protect against viral infections, they were unaware of the existence of viruses. The first evidence of viruses emerged from the work of researchers who identified them as distinct entities from other disease-causing pathogens. A significant milestone in this field was Martinus Beijerinck's isolation of the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), which marked a pivotal moment in recognizing viruses as infectious agents.[51.1] The history of virology can be categorized into four periods, highlighting key breakthroughs that extend the significance of virology beyond infectious diseases to foundational contributions in molecular biology and genomics. Notable advancements during the molecular biology period include phage display technology, the genetic engineering of the hepatitis B vaccine, the viral resistance of CRISPR/Cas9, and the use of retroviruses as vectors. Discoveries such as HIV-1 and HPV during this phase have significantly impacted medicine and virology, enhancing the understanding of virus-related diseases and vaccine development.[48.1] The field of virology has undergone significant advancements, particularly with the introduction of transmission electron microscopy (TEM), which has been a cornerstone of virology since the mid-20th century.[64.1] This technology has provided a profound impact on our understanding of viruses, allowing for the visualization of viral structures that were previously only suspected as causative agents of infectious diseases, thanks to a 1000-fold improvement in resolution compared to traditional optical microscopes.[62.1] The detailed views of viral morphology obtained through electron microscopy have revolutionized our comprehension of viral pathogens, facilitating crucial discoveries and breakthroughs in medical diagnostics and biotechnology.[64.1] Furthermore, the association of various major human diseases with specific viruses became clearer, leading to the development of methods for virus isolation and characterization.[50.1] Overall, the impact of TEM has been instrumental in the evolution of virology as a vital discipline within the biological sciences. The molecular biology era brought forth key advancements, including the genetic engineering of vaccines, such as the hepatitis B vaccine, and the application of phage display technology.[48.1] Discoveries during this time, including the identification of HIV-1 and HPV, had profound implications for medicine, particularly in the understanding and treatment of virus-related diseases.[48.1]Characteristics Of Viruses
Structure and Composition
Viruses exhibit a remarkable diversity in their structural forms, yet they share fundamental characteristics that enable their survival and propagation. All viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, meaning they must infect a host cell to reproduce. This process begins when a virus identifies and attaches itself to a susceptible host cell, a step mediated by specific receptor molecules on the host cell's surface.[97.1] The structure of a virus is characterized by a genome that can be either RNA or DNA, which is surrounded by a protective protein coat known as a capsid.[95.1] Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, meaning they must infect a host cell to survive and reproduce.[93.1] Upon entering a host cell, the viral genome directs the production of essential viral components, including proteins and nucleic acids, necessary for the formation of new virus particles called virions.[93.1] Unlike living organisms, viruses lack cellular structures and functional organelles, such as ribosomes, which are crucial for synthesizing cellular and metabolic molecules.[94.1] This absence of cellular machinery necessitates that viruses rely on the host cell's systems to replicate their genomes and express viral proteins.[105.1] In particular, viruses with double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) genomes can utilize the host's enzymes for DNA replication and transcription, allowing their replication to occur entirely in the cytoplasm without needing to enter the nucleus.[105.1] The replication process of viruses is intricately linked to their structural composition. For instance, RNA viruses replicate their genomes using virally encoded RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), which synthesizes additional RNA strands from the viral RNA genome.[101.1] This replication occurs primarily in the cytoplasm, where RNA viruses often utilize virus-induced replication organelles to facilitate their life cycle.[103.1] In contrast, double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses can utilize the host's cellular machinery for replication and transcription, allowing some to replicate entirely in the cytoplasm without needing to enter the nucleus.[105.1] Furthermore, the structural complexity of viruses is enhanced by accessory proteins that assist in evading host immune responses or improving replication efficiency. For example, the HIV virus encodes proteins that modulate host cell processes to favor viral persistence.[99.1] Understanding these structural and compositional characteristics is crucial for developing effective antiviral therapies and preventive measures against viral infections.[96.1]Classification of Viruses
Viruses are classified based on various criteria, including their genetic material, structure, and host range. The genetic material of viruses can be either DNA or RNA, and it may exist in single-stranded or double-stranded forms. The genome of a virus enters a host cell and directs the production of viral components, such as proteins and nucleic acids, which are necessary for forming new virus particles known as virions. Viruses have the potential to infect a wide array of host cells, including those from plants, animals, fungi, protists, bacteria, and archaea. However, it is important to note that most viruses typically have limited host ranges and tend to infect specific hosts and specific cell types within those hosts.[111.1] Viruses are intriguing biological entities characterized by a diverse range of structures, which can be classified into various forms, including helical, polyhedral, and complex shapes.[89.1] At their core, viruses consist of genetic material, either DNA or RNA, encased within a protective protein shell known as a capsid.[89.1] The genome of a virus enters a host cell and directs the production of viral components, including proteins and nucleic acids, necessary for forming new virus particles called virions.[90.1] While viruses can infect a wide variety of host cells, including those of plants, animals, fungi, protists, bacteria, and archaea, they typically have limited host ranges and usually infect specific hosts and particular cell types within those hosts.[90.1] Understanding these structural characteristics and their implications for transmission pathways is crucial for developing effective prevention strategies against viral infections.[89.1] Viruses are microscopic entities that significantly influence human health, causing a range of diseases from the common cold to severe illnesses such as HIV/AIDS and COVID-19, which impact public health systems worldwide.[113.1] Understanding the dynamics of viral interactions is crucial for developing effective strategies for the prevention, control, and treatment of viral infections.[113.1] During epidemics and pandemics of respiratory viruses, various non-vaccine public health control interventions have been implemented globally to reduce viral transmission and curb the spread of disease.[114.1] These interventions are informed by the specific characteristics of the viruses involved, which can influence their transmission patterns and the overall effectiveness of public health measures.[114.1] Recent advancements in virology have also introduced the concept of giant DNA viruses, which challenge traditional classifications and provide new opportunities for research and education in the field.[106.1] Understanding these classifications not only aids in the study of viral biology but also enhances the development of effective prevention and treatment strategies against viral infections.Viral Diseases
Impact of Viral Diseases on Public Health
Viral diseases significantly shape public health by driving the evolution of medical fields and influencing health policy development. The persistent emergence of viruses like West Nile Virus, Zika, SARS, MERS, and COVID-19 underscores the continuous threat they pose, challenging global health systems and resources.[141.1] Historically, the identification of viruses as causative agents of major diseases has propelled advancements in medical technology, notably in vaccination, which has been pivotal in eradicating smallpox and controlling diseases such as rabies, influenza, and polio.[136.1][136.1] Public health policies are crucial in controlling viral disease spread. Effective governance and policy-making, as seen during the COVID-19 pandemic, are vital for epidemic management.[137.1] Policies facilitating access to testing and treatment for diseases like HIV and hepatitis C have been key in managing these infections.[138.1] Additionally, non-vaccine interventions, such as social distancing and mask-wearing, have been globally adopted to curb viral transmission during outbreaks.[139.1] Environmental factors also play a significant role in viral disease transmission. Elements like air quality, temperature, humidity, and social behaviors can influence how viruses spread, with respiratory transmission being a primary route for many viruses, highlighting the need for targeted public health measures.[140.1][140.1] Public health campaigns are instrumental in educating communities about viral diseases, effectively altering public behavior towards prevention. These initiatives raise awareness about risky behaviors and promote preventive measures, thereby reducing disease burden.[143.1] For example, HIV/AIDS campaigns have successfully informed the public about safe practices and reduced stigma associated with the disease.[143.1] Continuous monitoring and evaluation of these campaigns are essential to maintain their effectiveness and relevance in addressing public health needs.[142.1]In this section:
Recent Advancements
Technological Innovations in Virology
Recent advancements in virology have been significantly influenced by technological innovations, particularly in the realms of artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), and organ-on-a-chip technologies. The integration of AI and ML into virological research has emerged as a transformative force, enhancing the accuracy of viral diagnostics and enabling the analysis of large datasets to identify patterns relevant to infectious diseases. For instance, machine learning methods have been employed to develop viral diagnostics with maximum sensitivity through combinatorial optimization techniques [184.1], while AI tools have been utilized to mine valuable insights from clinical notes and research articles, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of viral diseases.[182.1] Moreover, the application of organ-on-a-chip technology has gained traction in virology research, particularly in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. This technology allows for preclinical drug testing and offers new insights into emerging and re-emerging pandemic diseases, indicating its potential to become a standard tool in virology.[173.1] The advancements in these technologies not only promise to reshape our understanding of viruses but also hold the potential to accelerate vaccine development, which is crucial during outbreaks.[175.1] Recent advancements in virology were prominently showcased at significant conferences in 2023. The Second International Conference of the World Society for Virology, held in Riga, Latvia, from June 15-17, highlighted recent developments across various disciplines within the field.[171.1] Additionally, the American Society for Virology's annual conference, ASV2023, served as a key gathering for scientists and researchers, presenting innovations that have the potential to reshape our understanding of viruses and their implications for global health.[172.1] These events underscore the critical role of ongoing research and development in addressing current and future viral threats, ultimately enhancing public health responses worldwide.Breakthroughs in Vaccine Development
Recent advancements in vaccine development have been significantly influenced by a deeper understanding of viral mechanisms and pathogenesis. Strategies that incorporate B-cell ontogenies and viral evasion mechanisms have emerged as exceptionally powerful, particularly in the context of developing vaccines for viruses such as RSV, influenza A, and HIV, which have shown promising results through structure-based vaccine design strategies.[186.1] Additionally, prime-boost vaccine strategies have been utilized to enhance both cellular and humoral immunity across various animal models, demonstrating efficacy in clinical trials for diseases like HIV, SIV, HCV, HSV, and HBV.[187.1] The intricate dynamics between viral infections and the immune response have also informed vaccine design. The initiation of a viral infection involves the virus recognizing and attaching to susceptible host cells, subsequently hijacking the host's cellular machinery to replicate its genome.[188.1] This understanding has led to the development of innovative vaccine modalities, including synthetic mRNA vaccines that instruct cells to produce viral proteins, thereby triggering an immune response.[189.1] Furthermore, viral vector vaccines utilize harmless viruses to deliver genetic material from the target virus into host cells, prompting an immune response.[189.1] Recent innovations have also focused on the use of various viral vectors, such as adenoviral and retroviral vectors, alongside non-viral delivery systems to produce vaccines based on mRNA and self-amplifying RNA.[190.1] The exploration of viral pathogenesis has revealed that the interaction between viruses and the host immune system is complex, influencing vaccine development strategies.[208.1] Understanding these interactions is crucial for creating effective vaccines and therapeutic strategies, as they can inform predictions and management of future outbreaks.[209.1] Moreover, the application of nucleic acid, recombinant protein, and multi-epitope peptide subunit vaccines has gained traction, with lipid nanoparticle and dendritic cell-based platforms enhancing vaccine design and delivery.[211.1] Emerging non-viral vaccine technologies, including viral-like particle and nanoparticle vaccines, as well as rational vaccine design, are addressing existing challenges in vaccine development.[212.1] These advancements underscore the importance of integrating insights from viral pathogenesis into the ongoing evolution of vaccine strategies, ultimately enhancing public health responses to infectious diseases.[210.1]In this section:
Technological InnovationsArtificial IntelligenceMachine LearningOrgan-on-a-chipTechnologies
Clinical And Veterinary Virology
Veterinary Virology and Animal Health
Veterinary virology plays a crucial role in animal health by focusing on the prevention and treatment of viral diseases affecting domestic animals. This field is not only significant for veterinary medicine but also intersects with clinical virology, which involves the classification and characterization of viral pathogens that impact both animals and humans.[218.1] The study of veterinary virology has gained substantial academic and industrial interest since the mid-1960s, particularly in the context of vaccine development aimed at economically important viral diseases in food animals.[220.1] Veterinary virology is a critical field that addresses the impact of viral agents on animal health, as highlighted in comprehensive resources like "Fenner's Veterinary Virology".[221.1] Among the most significant viral diseases affecting domestic animals today is classical swine fever (CSF), which poses substantial economic challenges for both domestic pigs and wild boars.[222.1] Additionally, bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) is a prevalent infection in cattle, leading to a wide range of clinical manifestations that depend on various factors, including the host's immune status and environmental conditions.[224.1] BVD can result in immunosuppression and affect multiple body systems, with clinical signs ranging from inapparent infection to severe symptoms such as fever and depression.[226.1] Furthermore, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), caused by Bovine Herpes Virus-1, is characterized by acute respiratory symptoms, including fever, coughing, and nasal discharge, which can also lead to complications such as abortion and infertility in cows.[225.1] Understanding these viral diseases is essential for developing effective strategies to mitigate their spread and impact on animal health. Zoonotic diseases, which are transmitted from animals to humans, pose a significant public health risk, with approximately 75% of newly emerging infectious diseases being of animal origin.[229.1] The role of veterinary virology is evolving in response to these emerging zoonotic threats, emphasizing the need for effective biopreparedness and management strategies to control and prevent serious zoonotic diseases.[228.1] Surveillance of wildlife populations is essential for early detection of zoonotic pathogens, which can help mitigate the risk of transmission to humans.[223.1] Furthermore, understanding the differences in viral infections between animals and humans is critical for developing effective treatments and preventive measures in veterinary medicine. The biological differences between species can complicate the transmission of infectious diseases, as viruses must bind to specific cell receptors to replicate.[231.1] This complexity underscores the importance of veterinary virology in safeguarding animal health and, by extension, public health.[233.1]In this section:
Future Directions In Virology Research
Emerging Viral Threats
The emergence of new viral threats has underscored the need for innovative approaches in vaccine development, particularly through the integration of mRNA technology. Traditional vaccine development often takes considerable time and may struggle to effectively address rapidly mutating viruses. In contrast, mRNA technology has revolutionized vaccine development, enabling rapid responses to emerging viral threats.[278.1] The success of mRNA vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic has catalyzed advancements in this technology for a variety of viral infections, including influenza, respiratory syncytial virus, HIV, cytomegalovirus, Ebola, Zika, rabies, and notably, the Nipah virus.[279.1] The Nipah virus, a zoonotic pathogen, poses significant risks as it can spread from animals to humans and has the potential for person-to-person transmission, leading to severe health outcomes.[281.1] Thus, the ongoing development of mRNA vaccines represents a critical advancement in the fight against these emerging viral threats. Moreover, the integration of real-time epidemiological data into virology research is becoming increasingly vital. Advances in molecular epidemiological analyses and phylodynamic frameworks have enhanced the ability to utilize viral sequence data effectively, thereby improving the understanding of viral dynamics and outbreak predictions.[264.1] The incorporation of accurate PCR data and occurrence data into genomic epidemiology further aids in discerning genuine changes in growth rates of viral infections.[265.1] Emerging technologies, particularly Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML), and Deep Learning (DL), are becoming increasingly vital in the field of virology. The integration of these technologies is not only promising but essential for addressing the challenges posed by viral outbreaks. AI tools can be employed to continuously monitor viral activity, ensuring rapid response times during public health emergencies.[266.1] Furthermore, these technologies can optimize treatment plans by analyzing genomic data, which lays the groundwork for precision medicine by predicting patient responses to specific treatments and guiding drug discovery.[266.1] Additionally, AI can be utilized alongside Natural Language Processing (NLP) to extract valuable insights from clinical notes and research articles, thereby enhancing our overall understanding of viral diseases.[266.1] This multifaceted approach underscores the importance of equitable access to AI tools for public health authorities, as highlighted by ongoing research efforts aimed at increasing resilience to health threats.[267.1] Genomic surveillance is essential for tracking the ongoing evolution of SARS-CoV-2, which poses significant challenges for global public health, diagnostics, treatment, and vaccine development.[292.1] By integrating genomic surveillance data with epidemiological and clinical findings, researchers can provide a comprehensive overview of the virus's evolution and its implications for public health strategies and new vaccine development.[293.1] Effective genomic surveillance strategies typically follow a multi-disciplinary pipeline that includes clinical sample collection, viral genotyping, metadata linkage, data reporting, and communication with public health agencies.[294.1] This robust infrastructure for genomic surveillance has the potential to substantially reduce the burden of disease by facilitating timely data dissemination that informs research priorities and clinical care.[294.1] Furthermore, epidemiological tracking of SARS-CoV-2 variants is crucial for understanding their spread, informing public health interventions, and guiding vaccine development.[295.1] Specific mutations in the virus's genomic regions, particularly in the spike protein, contribute to viral fitness, affecting replication efficiency and immune escape, which underscores the importance of ongoing surveillance efforts.[295.1]Potential for Gene Editing and Antiviral Strategies
Recent advancements in virology research have highlighted the potential of gene editing technologies and innovative antiviral strategies in combating viral diseases. The rapid progress in understanding viral pathogenesis has led to the identification of novel drug targets and the development of antiviral agents, which are crucial for addressing emerging viral threats.[276.1] Recent advancements in virology research have significantly enhanced our understanding of viral diseases, leading to the development of innovative vaccines, therapeutic approaches, and diagnostic tools. These breakthroughs are crucial for improving our ability to respond effectively to both existing and emerging viral threats.[260.1] Furthermore, understanding the molecular mechanisms that drive viral pathogenesis is essential for identifying how viruses interact with host cells and manipulate immune responses. This knowledge is vital for discovering new antiviral agents and developing more targeted and effective treatments.[273.1] Overall, these advancements have reshaped our approach to viral pathogenesis and vaccine development, providing new tools and strategies to combat infectious diseases more efficiently.[275.1] The development of broad-spectrum antiviral (BSA) drugs is increasingly recognized as essential for effectively controlling emerging and re-emerging viral infectious diseases. These therapies include host-targeting agents that focus on proteins necessary for viral infection and replication, offering promising prospects due to their broad-spectrum profiles and high genetic barriers to resistance.[269.1] Various strategies are being explored, such as monoclonal antibodies that target conserved regions of viral surface proteins, molecules that interfere with host cell receptors or viral replication machinery, and RNA-based therapeutics.[270.1] Despite these advancements, there remains a notable lack of broad-spectrum direct-acting antiviral therapies that maintain efficacy against evolving SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern, highlighting the ongoing challenges in the field.[271.1] The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly accelerated advancements in virology research, leading to rapid progress in understanding, treating, and preventing viral diseases.[261.1] As global response strategies have evolved from a zero-COVID approach to one that accommodates living with COVID, there remains a notable deficiency in broad-spectrum direct-acting antiviral therapies that can maintain efficacy against the evolving variants of SARS-CoV-2.[271.1] The conventional one-bug-one-drug paradigm has proven inadequate in addressing the challenges posed by emerging and re-emerging viral pathogens, highlighting the urgent need for the development of a broad-spectrum class of antiviral drugs.[268.1] Furthermore, ongoing efforts to monitor viral evolution, identify mutations of concern, and create 'universal' vaccines are essential to counteract viral evolution and potentially prevent future viral outbreaks.[263.1]References
[3] Virology - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics — Virology is the scientific study of viruses, including their molecular biology, structure, interactions with hosts, and the diseases they cause. It also encompasses the evolution and history of viruses, virus epidemiology, and methods of preventing viral diseases.
[4] Virology | viruses, pathogens, disease | Britannica — Virology is a discipline of immediate interest because many human diseases, including smallpox, influenza, the common cold, and AIDS, as well as a host of economically important plant and animal diseases, are caused by viruses.
[5] Vaccination strategy for epidemic viral diseases in healthcare ... - PubMed — Vaccination strategy for epidemic viral diseases in healthcare workers: Cut-off for optimal immunization J Infect Chemother. 2019 Jan;25 ... After implementing the vaccination strategy to keep the laboratory threshold, there were only sporadic cases of EVDs among HCWs. More than 99% of individuals who had positive titers in 2005 remained the
[7] Emerging viruses and current strategies for vaccine intervention — With each new threat comes the call for rapid vaccine development. Indeed, vaccines are considered a critical component of disease prevention for emerging viral infections because, in many cases, other medical options are limited or non-existent, or that infections result in such a rapid clinical deterioration that the effectiveness of
[11] Virus Capsid Complexity, Structure, and Protective Roles — Explore the structural complexity of virus capsids, their role in genome protection, and how they influence host interactions and viral stability. ... Structural Components. The virus capsid is composed of protein subunits called capsomers, which self-assemble into a structure that encases the viral genome. ... benefiting viruses requiring
[12] What are the components of a virus? — Understanding the structure, function, and behavior of each component is crucial for the development of effective treatments and vaccines against viral diseases. By exploring the components of a virus, we can gain a better understanding of how they interact with the host cell and develop new strategies to combat viral infections.
[21] Practical Guidance for Clinical Microbiology Laboratories: Viruses ... — Respiratory viral infections are associated with a wide range of acute syndromes and infectious disease processes in children and adults worldwide. Many viruses are implicated in these infections, and these viruses are spread largely via respiratory means between humans but also occasionally from animals to humans. KEYWORDS: clinical, guidance, laboratory, respiratory, virus SUMMARY
[22] Overview of Viral Respiratory Infections - Infectious Diseases - Merck ... — Overview of Viral Respiratory Infections - Infectious Diseases - Merck Manual Professional Edition Although respiratory infections can be classified by the causative virus (eg, influenza), they are generally classified clinically according to syndrome (eg, the common cold, bronchiolitis, croup, pneumonia). Specific pathogens commonly cause characteristic clinical manifestations (eg, rhinovirus typically causes the common cold, respiratory syncytial virus [RSV] typically causes bronchiolitis), and each pathogen can also cause many of the general symptoms of viral respiratory syndromes. Viral respiratory infections are typically diagnosed clinically based on symptoms and local epidemiology. Treatment of Viral Respiratory Infections Treatment of viral respiratory infections is usually supportive. 7. Garegnani L, Styrmisdóttir L, Roson Rodriguez P, et al: Palivizumab for preventing severe respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection in children.
[23] The treatment of mild upper respiratory tract infections - a position ... — The symptoms of mild upper respiratory tract infections (MURTIs) are caused by the immune response to viral agents. They vary in incidence and severity but are generally similar regardless of the causative viral strain, including common cold-causing viruses (see Table 1), influenza viruses and SARS-CoV-2 (see Table 2).
[24] Upper Respiratory Tract Infection - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf — A variety of viruses and bacteria can cause upper respiratory tract infections. These cause a variety of patient diseases including acute bronchitis, the common cold, influenza, and respiratory distress syndromes. Defining most of these patient diseases is difficult because the presentations connected with upper respiratory tract infections (URIs) commonly overlap and their causes are similar
[25] Treatment of the Common Cold | AAFP — Article Sections Acute upper respiratory tract infections are extremely common in adults and children, but only a few safe and effective treatments are available. Patients typically present with nasal congestion, rhinorrhea, sore throat, cough, general malaise, and/or low-grade fever. Treatments with proven effectiveness for cold symptoms in adults include over-the-counter analgesics, zinc, nasal decongestants with or without antihistamines, and ipratropium for cough. The only established safe and effective treatments for children are acetylcysteine, honey (for children one year and older), nasal saline irrigation, inhaled ipratropium, and topical application of ointment containing camphor, menthol, and eucalyptus oils. Over-the-counter cold medications should not be used in children younger than four years.
[35] Viral Life Cycle: Entry, Replication, Synthesis, Assembly, Release — The viral life cycle consists of several stages that allow the virus to hijack host cellular machinery to reproduce. This process involves entry into a host cell, replication of its genome, synthesis of necessary proteins, assembly of new virions, and their release from the host cell.
[48] Evolution of Virology: Science History through Milestones and ... — This field delves into the structure, life cycle, transmission, and host interactions of a virus, extending the significance of virology beyond infectious diseases to foundational contributions in molecular biology and genomics. Categorized into four periods, the history of virology highlights key breakthroughs, ranging from Martinus Beijerinck’s isolation of the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) to genetic discoveries and vaccine developments. During the molecular biology period, key advancements, such as phage display technology, genetic engineering of the hepatitis B vaccine, the viral resistance of CRISPR/Cas9, and the use of retroviruses as vectors, have led to the profound integration of virology with molecular biology. Discoveries during this phase, such as HIV-1 and HPV, significantly impacted medicine and virology, advancing the understanding of virus-related diseases and vaccine development.
[50] History and Impact of Virology - PMC - PubMed Central (PMC) — A Brief History of Virology. The history of virology can be divided into a number of eras: these span (1) the discovery of viruses as entities distinct from other disease-causing pathogens, (2) the association of many major human diseases with causative viruses, (3) the development of methods for virus isolation and characterization, (4) the
[51] History of virology - Wikipedia — The history of virology - the scientific study of viruses and the infections they cause - began in the closing years of the 19th century. Although Edward Jenner and Louis Pasteur developed the first vaccines to protect against viral infections, they did not know that viruses existed. The first evidence of the existence of viruses came from
[59] History and Impact of Virology - PMC - PubMed Central (PMC) — The history of virology can be divided into a number of eras: these span (1) the discovery of viruses as entities distinct from other disease-causing pathogens, (2) the association of many major human diseases with causative viruses, (3) the development of methods for virus isolation and characterization, (4) the defining of the chemical
[60] 13.1: Pandemics Throughout History - Medicine LibreTexts — Like other pandemics throughout history, COVID-19 helped shape the public health system and the government response to public health threats. Pandemic responses have led to advances like sanitation, isolation, quarantine, and vaccine development and have taught public health workers lessons about the importance of early response and mitigation
[61] A history of pandemics: Lessons we can learn from the past — 1 The most noteworthy large-scale pandemic that occurred closer to our modern day was the Spanish flu of 1918–19, which manifested at the very worst time possible when the world was engaged in the First World War. This avian-borne flu was responsible for infecting over 500 million people worldwide and taking over 50 million lives. Closer to home, Canada was struck particularly hard by the Spanish flu, losing approximately 55,000 people to the virus, in addition to the loss of nearly 60,000 soldiers over the course of the war. 3 The Spanish flu was definitely a wake-up call for Canada, and it resulted in the creation of the Federal Department of Health in 1919, making public health a shared responsibility of local, provincial, and federal governments. Available from: https://www.history.com/news/spanish-flu-second-wave-resurgence
[62] Application of transmission electron microscopy to the clinical study ... — Abstract. Transmission electron microscopy has had a profound impact on our knowledge and understanding of viruses and bacteria. The 1000-fold improvement in resolution provided by electron microscopy (EM) has allowed visualization of viruses, the existence of which had previously only been suspected as the causative agents of transmissible infectious disease.
[64] Virus Up Close: A Deep Look into Microscopic Structures — Electron microscopy (EM) has been a cornerstone of virology since the mid-20th century, offering the first detailed views of viral morphology. Unlike optical microscopes, which use visible light, EM employs a beam of electrons to achieve significantly higher resolution. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is particularly useful for
[79] Edward Jenner, FRS FRCPE | History of Vaccines — By 1803, Jenner's findings were translated to French and Spanish, and the King of Spain launched a vaccination campaign to the Americas and the Far East. Throughout his life, Edward Jenner received many accolades for his contribution to the understanding of infectious disease.
[80] Edward Jenner: The Pioneer of Vaccination and His Enduring Legacy in ... — By demonstrating that immunity could be elicited through the use of cowpox, Jenner not only provided a means to combat smallpox but also established a foundation for the development of vaccines for other diseases. Jenner’s innovative approach not only revolutionized preventive medicine but also established the foundation for the development of vaccines against various infectious diseases, marking a significant advancement in public health . Jenner’s innovative approach involved using cowpox, a less harmful virus, to provide immunity against smallpox and establishing fundamental principles of vaccination that continue to underpin modern vaccine development . Edward Jenner’s pioneering work in the field of vaccination was a landmark achievement in the history of medicine, representing a significant turning point in disease prevention and paving the way for modern immunology. 2.Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination.
[81] Edward Jenner's Discovery of Vaccination: Impact and Legacy — Keywords: edward jenner, historical vignette, public health, smallpox, vaccination The methods and insights gained from Jenner’s work have continued to influence vaccine development and public health strategies . The lessons learned from Jenner’s work remain relevant as new vaccines are developed and as public health professionals address emerging challenges, such as vaccine hesitancy and the need for vaccines against newly identified pathogens . A comprehensive literature search was conducted on PubMed using keywords such as "Edward Jenner," "smallpox vaccination," "history of immunization," and "vaccination impact." The search was limited to articles published in peer-reviewed journals. The success of modern vaccines demonstrates the ongoing impact of Jenner’s work on public health.
[89] Introduction to viruses - Wikipedia — Illustration of a SARS-CoV-2 virion. A virus is a tiny infectious agent that reproduces inside the cells of living hosts.When infected, the host cell is forced to rapidly produce thousands of identical copies of the original virus. Unlike most living things, viruses do not have cells that divide; new viruses assemble in the infected host cell.But unlike simpler infectious agents like prions
[90] Virus facts and information - National Geographic — Viruses can't generate their own energy, and though they can reproduce and even evolve with the assistance of a host, those functions are impossible for one of the tiny entities out on its own.
[93] 11.1: Viruses - General Characteristics - Biology LibreTexts — In order to survive and reproduce, viruses must infect a cellular host, making them obligate intracellular parasites. The genome of a virus enters a host cell and directs the production of the viral components, proteins and nucleic acids, needed to form new virus particles called virions.
[94] Characteristics of Viruses - #1 Microbiology Resource Hub — They lack cellular structure; and viruses generally have the ability to infect other forms of life including bacteria, Archaea, animals and plant cells. . Viruses lack functional organelles (e.g. ribosomes) for the synthesis of important cellular and metabolic molecules.
[95] Structure and Classification of Viruses - Medical Microbiology - NCBI ... — either a RNA or DNA genome surrounded by a protective, virus-coded protein coat. In enveloped viruses, the nucleocapsid is viruses. Chemical Composition and Mode of Replication: The genome of a virus viruses, the site of envelopment. Capsid proteins are coded for by the virus non-structural regulatory proteins involved in virus replication). Therefore, enveloped viruses In the replication of viruses with helical symmetry, identical protein enveloped virus with helical nucleocapsid symmetry, a member of the The replication of these viruses functional in virus transcription, DNA replication and cell viruses. viruses that replicate in more than one of these hosts. viruses, the site of nucleocapsid envelopment. is from the replication of the virus in hepatocytes and their DNA genomes, as seen
[96] Mechanisms of Viral Behavior and Host Interaction — Explore the intricate dynamics of viral behavior and their complex interactions with host cells, including replication, immune evasion, and resistance. Understanding how viruses interact with host cells is essential for developing effective treatments and preventive measures against viral infections. Viruses have evolved a suite of molecular tools to interact with host cell receptors, effectively turning the cell into a viral factory. Additionally, viruses can exploit the host cell’s cytoskeleton to facilitate the transport of viral components, ensuring efficient assembly and release. This commandeering of cellular machinery showcases the virus’s ability to adapt to and exploit host cell biology for its replication cycle. The ability of some viruses to enter a latent state within host cells adds another layer of complexity to viral behavior.
[97] Understanding Viral Structure, Function, and Host Interactions — Structure and Composition. Viruses exhibit a remarkable diversity in their structural forms, yet they all share a fundamental architecture that enables their survival and propagation. ... This cycle begins when the virus identifies and attaches itself to a susceptible host cell. This interaction is mediated by specific receptor molecules on the
[99] Understanding Viral Dynamics: Structure, Replication, and Defense — The structural complexity of viruses is further exemplified by accessory proteins that assist in evading host immune responses or enhancing replication efficiency. For example, the HIV virus encodes proteins like Nef and Vif, which modulate host cell processes to favor viral persistence.
[101] Introduction to RNA Viruses - PMC — RNA viruses replicate their genomes using virally encoded RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). The RNA genome is the template for synthesis of additional RNA strands. During replication of RNA viruses, there are at least three types of RNA that must
[103] Positive-strand RNA virus genome replication organelles: structure ... — Positive-strand RNA [(+)RNA] viruses include pandemic SARS-CoV-2, tumor-inducing hepatitis C virus, debilitating chikungunya virus (CHIKV), lethal encephalitis viruses, and many other major pathogens. (+)RNA viruses replicate their RNA genomes in virus-induced replication organelles (ROs) that also evolve new viral species and variants by recombination and mutation and are crucial virus
[105] Virus Replication - PMC — Regardless of the structure of their nucleic acid, all viruses need to express their viral proteins and replicate their genome within the cell in order to create new virions. Viruses with dsDNA genomes therefore have the most similar nucleic acid to living organisms and often use the enzymes and proteins that the cell normally uses for DNA replication and transcription, including its DNA polymerases and RNA polymerases. In fact, they also encode the proteins needed for transcription of RNA, and so, unlike all other dsDNA viruses, they do not need to gain entry into the nucleus of a host cell for either genome replication or transcription and processing of viral genes, allowing their replication to take place entirely in the cytoplasm.
[106] Virus goes viral: an educational kit for virology classes - PMC — The development of tools for teaching virology is important to encourage educators to expand on the covered topics and connect them to recent findings. Discoveries, such as giant DNA viruses, have provided an opportunity to explore aspects of viral particles in ways never seen before.
[111] 11.1: Viruses - General Characteristics - Biology LibreTexts — [ "article:topic", "authorname:openstax", "Viruses", "Virions", "capsid", "host ranges", "helical", "polyhedral", "complex", "showtoc:no", "license:ccby", "source-bio-5301", "licenseversion:40", "source@https://openstax.org/details/books/microbiology" ] [ "article:topic", "authorname:openstax", "Viruses", "Virions", "capsid", "host ranges", "helical", "polyhedral", "complex", "showtoc:no", "license:ccby", "source-bio-5301", "licenseversion:40", "source@https://openstax.org/details/books/microbiology" ] The genome of a virus enters a host cell and directs the production of the viral components, proteins and nucleic acids, needed to form new virus particles called virions. Viruses can infect every type of host cell, including those of plants, animals, fungi, protists, bacteria, and archaea. However, having a wide host range is not common and viruses will typically only infect specific hosts and only specific cell types within those hosts. Viruses typically have limited host ranges and infect specific cell types.
[113] Viral Dynamics and Their Impact on Human Health — Viruses are microscopic entities that significantly influence human health. They can cause diseases ranging from the common cold to more severe illnesses like HIV/AIDS and COVID-19, impacting public health systems worldwide. Understanding viral dynamics helps develop strategies for prevention, control, and treatment of viral infections. This exploration will examine how viruses interact with
[114] Effectiveness of Non-Vaccine Control Measures - Public Health Lessons ... — During epidemics and pandemics of respiratory viruses, non-vaccine public health control interventions have been implemented in diverse settings across the world to reduce viral transmission and curb the spread of disease. This chapter provides a high-level overview of the available evidence regarding the effectiveness of such interventions during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19
[136] Viruses: Impact on Science and Society - PMC - PubMed Central (PMC) — In this article we consider the tremendous impact, past and present (and undoubtedly future), of viruses on humans, in both science and society. Medical specialties such epidemiology and public health owe much of their development to infectious diseases we now know to be caused by viruses, as do such medical technologies such as vaccination. The development of vaccines as a means to prevent viral diseases is one of the best known and oldest examples of humans harnessing viruses. Perhaps our best weapon against viral infections in the past century and a half has been vaccination; it has effected the eradication of smallpox, and the control of many other viral diseases including rabies, influenza, yellow fever, polio myelitis, measles, mumps and rubella, and most recently the human papilloma viruses associated with cervical cancer.
[137] The critical role of health policy and management in epidemic control ... — The COVID-19 pandemic has revealed the crucial role of health policy, governance, and management in epidemic control. Although clinical and virological aspects of infectious disease outbreaks are essential, these must be complemented by strong public health leadership, responsive policy-making, and innovations in health care delivery.
[138] Policy and Public Health: Reducing the Burden of Infectious Diseases — Examples include laws that reduce barriers to HIV testing,30 the removal of cost barriers to curative therapy for hepatitis C virus infection,31 requiring syphilis screening and treatment for pregnant women to prevent congenital syphilis,32 and policy changes to allow electronic directly observed therapy as a cost-effective approach to reduce TB transmission.33 Policy decisions involve tradeoffs, and varied research methods34,35 are available to establish a sound evidence base for developing and selecting public health policy approaches.1 Mapping, implementation, and evaluation studies such as those presented in this supplement can provide complementary evidence that supports policy action.
[139] Effectiveness of Non-Vaccine Control Measures - Public Health Lessons ... — During epidemics and pandemics of respiratory viruses, non-vaccine public health control interventions have been implemented in diverse settings across the world to reduce viral transmission and curb the spread of disease. This chapter provides a high-level overview of the available evidence regarding the effectiveness of such interventions during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19
[140] Environmental factors influencing the transmission of the coronavirus ... — Here, we review environmental factors that control viral transmission, such as air, temperature, humidity, food, water and sewage, insects, inanimate surfaces, hand hygiene, and social distancing. The main route of viral transmission is the respiratory tract through aerosols. Masks and social distancing are effective in ceasing air transmission.
[141] Viral diseases and the environment relationship — Emergence of New Viral Diseases in the 21st Century:Recent viral diseases include West Nile Virus, Zika, SARS, MERS, and COVID-19.These diseases underscore the ongoing challenge of emerging viral threats. Impact of Viral Diseases on the Environment:Viral diseases worsen environmental damage via pollution, deforestation, biodiversity loss, and strained global resources and supply chains. Complex Interrelationship Between Viruses and the Environment:Human activities and environmental factors drive viral spread. Conversely, viral diseases can impact the environment by polluting water resources, contributing to deforestation, and reducing biodiversity. The persistent transmission of diseases from animals to humans poses a significant global health burden(Daszak et al., n.d.; Rohr et al., 2019). Ecotoxicity is the potential of a substance to cause adverse effects on the environment, particularly on living organisms such as plants, animals, and microorganisms(Ortiz de García et al., 2014).
[142] Creating Successful Public Health Campaigns: Key Strategies and Best ... — By continuously monitoring and evaluating the campaign, public health professionals can ensure that the campaign remains relevant, impactful, and aligned with the needs of the target audience. In conclusion, monitoring and evaluation are essential components of successful public health campaigns.
[143] Top 10 Most Effective Public Health Campaigns of All Time — By raising awareness about the risks associated with certain behaviors and promoting preventive measures, public health campaigns can significantly reduce the burden of diseases. HIV/AIDS awareness campaigns have played a crucial role in educating the public about the disease, promoting safe practices, and reducing stigma. Mental health awareness campaigns play a crucial role in reducing stigma, promoting early intervention, and improving access to mental healthcare. These campaigns aim to educate the public about mental health issues, raise awareness about the importance of seeking help, and provide resources for those in need. By combining public education, community support programs, and policy changes, these campaigns aim to prevent drug addiction, provide support to those in need, and create a healthier society.
[171] WSV2023 - The second meeting of the world society for virology: One ... — The Second International Conference of the World Society for Virology (WSV), hosted by Riga Stradiņš University, was held in Riga, Latvia, on June 15-17th, 2023. It prominently highlighted the recent advancements in different disciplines of virology. The conference had fourteen keynote speakers cove …
[172] Insights from ASV2023: Virology Innovations and Collaborations — The American Society for Virology's annual conference, ASV2023, has become a key gathering for scientists and researchers in virology. This year's event showcased advancements that promise to reshape our understanding of viruses and their impact on global health.
[173] Advancements in organs-on-chips technology for viral disease and anti ... — Current COVID-19 pandemics have spurred the application of Organs-on-a-Chip technology in virology research and preclinical drug testing. Its development would lead to new insights into emerging and re-emerging pandemic diseases (Vargas et al., 2021). We anticipate that Organs-on-Chips will become a standard tool in virology and viral
[175] Latest Advancements in Virology Research — The advancements in virology research may lead to significant breakthroughs in public health. For instance, improved understanding of viral mechanisms could accelerate vaccine development. Rapid vaccine creation is crucial during outbreaks, as demonstrated during the COVID-19 pandemic.
[182] Transforming clinical virology with AI, machine learning and deep ... — To address these challenges, the intersection of clinical virology with emerging technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML), and Deep Learning (DL) is not just promising but imperative. They can also be used in tandem with other AI techniques like Natural Language Processing (NLP) to mine valuable insights from clinical notes, research articles, and other textual data sources, contributing to a more holistic understanding of viral diseases. In addition to identifying potential outbreaks, AI tools provide frameworks for continuous monitoring, ensuring rapid response times during public health emergencies. Treatment optimization and personalization: AI’s ability to curate treatment plans based on genomic data provides the groundwork for precision medicine, predicting patient responses to specific treatments, and guiding drug discovery.
[184] Designing sensitive viral diagnostics with machine learning — Viral diagnostics with maximum sensitivity are designed using machine learning and combinatorial optimization.
[186] What Are the Most Powerful Immunogen Design Vaccine Strategies? — Strategies that incorporate B-cell ontogenies and viral evasion mechanisms appear exceptionally powerful. Structure-based vaccine design strategies for three viruses—RSV, influenza A, and HIV—have shown promising results. Strategies that incorporate B-cell ontogenies and viral evasion mechanisms appear exceptionally powerful.
[187] Prime-boost vaccine strategy against viral infections: Mechanisms and ... — Among different vaccine modalities, prime-boost vaccine strategies could enhance cellular and also humoral immunity in several animal models. These strategies have been applied for the development of vaccines against important infectious diseases such as HIV, SIV, HCV, HSV, and HBV indicating promising results even in clinical trials.
[188] Understanding Viral Infection and Immune Response Mechanisms — Understanding Viral Infection and Immune Response Mechanisms Explore the intricate dynamics between viral infections and the body's immune response, highlighting key defense mechanisms and diagnostic advancements. The initiation of a viral infection begins with the virus’s recognition and attachment to a susceptible host cell. This stage is marked by the hijacking of the host’s cellular machinery, as the virus commandeers ribosomes and enzymes to synthesize viral proteins and replicate its genome. These vaccines use synthetic mRNA to instruct cells to produce viral proteins, triggering an immune response. Viral vector vaccines utilize a harmless virus to deliver genetic material from the target virus into cells, prompting an immune response.
[189] Understanding Viruses: Structure, Transmission, and Vaccines — Understanding Viruses: Structure, Transmission, and Vaccines - BiologyInsights Understanding Viruses: Structure, Transmission, and Vaccines Explore the intricate world of viruses, their transmission, immune interactions, and the science behind vaccine development. Such changes can render pre-existing antibodies less effective, facilitating the virus’s persistence despite prior immune responses or vaccination efforts. Subunit vaccines contain only specific pieces of the virus, such as proteins or sugar molecules, which are sufficient to provoke an immune response. Nucleic acid vaccines, such as mRNA vaccines, represent a novel approach by using genetic material to instruct cells to produce viral proteins, thereby stimulating an immune response. Viral vector vaccines employ a different virus as a delivery system to carry viral genes into host cells, prompting an immune response.
[190] Strategies for Vaccination: Conventional Vaccine Approaches Versus New ... — We also present details of the novel strategies that were adopted by different research groups to successfully transfer recombinantly expressed antigens while using viral vectors (adenoviral and retroviral) and non-viral delivery systems, and how recently developed methods have been applied in order to produce vaccines that are based on mRNA, self-amplifying RNA (saRNA), and trans-amplifying RNA (taRNA). However, in recent years, significant progress in the development of viral vector vaccines has yielded encouraging results with respect to dendritic cells, and an increasing number of studies have begun to focus on the use of different viral vectors, including RNA (retroviral and lentiviral), adenoviral, and Adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors . 146.Chahal J.S., Fang T., Woodham A.W., Khan O.F., Ling J., Anderson D.G., Ploegh H.L. An RNA nanoparticle vaccine against Zika virus elicits antibody and CD8+ T cell responses in a mouse model.
[208] Advancements in Viral Pathogenesis and Vaccine Development — This article will explore the latest insights and innovations transforming these fields. Viral Pathogenesis. The process by which viruses cause disease, known as viral pathogenesis, involves a complex interplay between the virus and the host's immune system. This interaction begins when a virus enters a host cell, often exploiting specific
[209] Viral Interference: Evolution, Immunity, and Vaccine Implications — Understanding these interactions is essential for developing effective vaccines and therapeutic strategies. By exploring how viral interference influences evolution and immunity, we can better predict and manage future outbreaks. Mechanisms of Viral Interference. Viral interference is a complex phenomenon that can occur through various mechanisms.
[210] Advancements in Viral Pathogenesis and Vaccine Development — Understanding how viruses cause disease and developing effective vaccines are essential in safeguarding public health. Recent advancements have reshaped our approach to viral pathogenesis and vaccine development, offering new tools and strategies to combat infectious diseases more efficiently.
[211] Recent advancements in vaccine research and development — The December focus issue of Trends in Pharmacological Sciences for 2024 showcases recent advancements in vaccine research. It underscores the growing application of nucleic acid, recombinant protein, and multi-epitope peptide subunit vaccines, as well as lipid nanoparticle and dendritic cell-based platforms in the design and delivery of vaccines. These innovative approaches are proving
[212] Vaccine development: Current trends and technologies — Vaccine development: Current trends and technologies - ScienceDirect Search Search ScienceDirect Vaccine development: Current trends and technologies As well as traditional vaccine different methods such as inactivated or live attenuated vaccines, viral vector vaccines, and subunit vaccines, emerging non-viral vaccine technologies, including viral-like particle and nanoparticle vaccines, DNA/RNA vaccines, and rational vaccine design, offer new strategies to address the existing challenges in vaccine development. This review provides a comprehensive assessment of emerging non-viral vaccine production methods and their application in addressing the fundamental and current challenges in vaccine development. Various vaccines were swiftly developed and subjected to rigorous clinical trials. Recent advances in mRNA vaccine technology Vaccine technologies: from whole organisms to rationally designed protein assemblies New vaccine technologies to combat outbreak situations Single-cycle adenovirus vectors in the current vaccine landscape Virus-like particles: flexible platforms for vaccine development About ScienceDirect
[218] Virology Overview, Classification, Diseases - Clinical, Veterinary — While veterinary virology is an important field of study that is aimed at preventing and treating animal diseases caused by viruses, it's also an important field in clinical virology. ... Like veterinary virology, clinical virology is also concerned with the classification and characterization of these particles, which has, in turn, made it
[220] Veterinary Virology - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics — Abstract. Since the refinement of tissue culture techniques for virus isolation and propagation from the mid 1960s onwards, veterinary virology has received much academic and industrial interest, and has now become a major global industry largely centred on vaccine development against economically important virus diseases of food animals. Bio-tech approaches have been widely used for improved
[221] Fenner's Veterinary Virology - ScienceDirect — Fenner's Veterinary Virology, Fifth Edition, is a comprehensive reference of global importance that features coverage on viral agents, viral diseases of animals, and newly emerging viral zoonotic diseases. It is an excellent first port of call for researchers and students alike, presenting the fundamental principles of virology, virus structure, genome replication, and viral diseases, while
[222] Strategies for Preventing Viral Diseases of Domestic Animals - MDPI — All potential authors are encouraged to submit reviews and articles regarding strategies to limit the spread of infectious diseases in domestic animals. Prof. Dr. Grzegorz Wozniakowski ... Viruses 2023, 15(12 ... Classical swine fever (CSF) remains one of the most economically significant viral diseases affecting domestic pigs and wild boars
[223] PDF — Zoonotic diseases include well-known illnesses such as rabies, Lyme disease, and West Nile virus, as well as emerging threats like Ebola and Zika virus (Mokwelu, Etele & Akunne, 2023, Shaheen, 2022). Wildlife surveillance is essential for early detection of zoonotic pathogens in animal populations before they spread to humans.
[224] The Clinical Manifestations of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Infection — Infection of cattle with bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) occurs frequently. The outcome of BVDV infection is a wide range of clinical manifestations. The form of clinical disease observed depends on the agent, host, and environmental factors, as well as interaction of these factors. The clinical manifestations are reviewed in terms of BVDV infection in animals that are immuno-competent to
[225] 18 Most Common Cattle Diseases: You Must Know As A Farm Owner — IBR is an acute, highly contagious, respiratory infectious viral disease of cattle caused by Bovine Herpes Virus-1. The clinical signs are sudden onset of fever, coughing, sneezing, respiratory distress, nasal discharge, conjunctivitis, abortion, and infertility in cows.
[226] Bovine Viral Diarrhea and Mucosal Disease Complex — Bovine viral diarrhea/mucosal disease is a pestivirus infection of cattle and other ruminants. Infection leads to immunosuppression and can cause signs in multiple body systems in addition to the digestive tract. Mucosal disease is an uncommon form of infection in persistently infected cattle and is typically fatal. Clinical signs range from inapparent infection to fever, depression, decreased
[228] Enhancing the Role of Veterinary Vaccines Reducing Zoonotic Diseases of ... — When appropriate biopreparedness, management strategies and contingency plans are linked with 1) protective rationally designed vaccines against zoonoses, 2) effective predictive disease modeling and 3) deployable field implementation policies, control and prevention of serious zoonotic diseases of man and animals become more achievable.
[229] Zoonotic Diseases: Eco-Epidemiology and Public Health Implications - MDPI — Zoonoses are currently regarded as one of the most significant risks to global public health. Approximately 75% of newly emerging infectious diseases affecting humans are of animal origin, and 60% of all human pathogens are zoonotic. These zoonotic infections can be caused by a wide range of pathogenic agents, including viruses, parasites
[231] Yes, Humans Can Get Their Pets Sick: Reverse Zoonosis More Common Than ... — Differences in the biology of animals and humans usually make it difficult for infectious diseases to spread between species. Viruses, for example, must bind to specific cell receptors in the host to reproduce and continue their life cycle.
[233] Viral Pathogens of Domestic Animals and Their Impact on Biology ... — Diseases of domestic animals not only affect animal production and animal trade but can, in some cases, be transmitted and cause diseases in humans (zoonoses). The H5N1 subtype of avian influenza is an example of a zoonosis with documented fatal outcomes that constitutes a serious pandemic threat.
[260] Latest Advancements in Virology Research — Recent advancements in virology research have significantly impacted our understanding of viral diseases. Scientists have developed innovative vaccines, therapeutic approaches, and diagnostic tools. These breakthroughs enhance our ability to respond to existing and emerging viral threats effectively.
[261] Whats New in Virology in the Past Year | The Healthcare Guys — The COVID-19 pandemic was able to significantly speed up many kinds of virology research, and was able to drive rapid progress in understanding, treating and preventing viral diseases. The quick development of mRNA vaccines have helped with treating flu and RSV, and treatment insights have benefitted hepatitis and HPV research too.
[263] Crossroads in virology: current challenges and future perspectives in ... — Furthermore, efforts to monitor viral evolution, identify mutations of concern, and develop 'universal' vaccines and broad-spectrum antiviral drugs are needed to counter viral evolution and potentially prevent future viral emergences. Widespread public mistrust surrounding viruses and vaccines also calls for improvement in science communication.
[264] Advances in Visualization Tools for Phylogenomic and Phylodynamic ... — The ability of molecular epidemiological analyses, and phylodynamic analyses in particular, to fully exploit the information embedded in viral sequence data has significantly improved through a combination of technological innovations and advances in inference frameworks during the past decades.
[265] Progress and challenges in virus genomic epidemiology — The integration of accurate PCR data into genomic epidemiology increases the utility of case data for untangling genuine growth rate changes. Another additional source of data in these scenarios is occurrence data (i.e., unsequenced case data), which can be included in a birth-death framework to more accurately estimate epidemiological
[266] Transforming clinical virology with AI, machine learning and deep ... — To address these challenges, the intersection of clinical virology with emerging technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML), and Deep Learning (DL) is not just promising but imperative. They can also be used in tandem with other AI techniques like Natural Language Processing (NLP) to mine valuable insights from clinical notes, research articles, and other textual data sources, contributing to a more holistic understanding of viral diseases. In addition to identifying potential outbreaks, AI tools provide frameworks for continuous monitoring, ensuring rapid response times during public health emergencies. Treatment optimization and personalization: AI’s ability to curate treatment plans based on genomic data provides the groundwork for precision medicine, predicting patient responses to specific treatments, and guiding drug discovery.
[267] Harnessing AI to model infectious disease epidemics — Harnessing AI to model infectious disease epidemics | Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health Francesca Dominici, Clarence James Gamble Professor of Biostatistics, Population, and Data Science at Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health and faculty director of the Harvard Data Science Initiative, and her research team are developing artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning models to aid their work on increasing people’s resilience to health threats from environmental stressors and extreme weather events. A: One set of questions concerns the importance of AI tools being shared equitably for use by public health authorities. Environment & Climate Health, Health Data Science, Infectious Diseases Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health
[268] Broad-spectrum antiviral agents - PMC — The conventional one-bug-one-drug paradigm is insufficient to address the challenge of emerging and re-emerging viral pathogens, and few drugs are currently available to a prompt control of epidemic viral diseases (Chan et al., 2013; Raveh et al., 2013; Carossino et al., 2014). Thus, it is imperative to develop a broad-spectrum class of
[269] Broad-spectrum antiviral strategy: Host-targeting antivirals against ... — Broad-spectrum antiviral (BSA) drugs are clinically required for effectively controlling emerging and re-emerging viral infectious diseases. HTAs encompass agents that target the host proteins necessary for viral infection and replication; they offer promising prospects due to their broad-spectrum antiviral profiles and high genetic barrier
[270] Potential Broad-Spectrum Antiviral Agents: A Key Arsenal Against ... - MDPI — Various broad-spectrum direct-acting and host-targeting antivirals are discussed, including monoclonal antibodies targeting conserved regions of viral surface proteins, molecules interfering with host cell receptors or viral replication machinery, viral protease inhibitors, siRNA therapies, ribonuclease, and 3D8 scFv. Advancements in host-targeting approaches to reduce resistance and RNA-based therapeutics offer significant potential for combating respiratory viral threats. 2D structure | Influenza A, B, C viruses, RSV, SARS-CoV, HCoV-OC43, HCoV-229E, SARS-CoV-2, PIV-5 in vitro and/or in vivo | Interacting with certain aromatic residues within the viral glycoprotein, and/or cellular proteins, resulting in blocking viral endocytosis and replication | Direct-acting antiviral Chemical structure | Influenza viruses including: H1N1, H3N2, H5N2, H6N5, H9N2, oseltamivir-resistant IAV, influenza B, SARS-CoV-2 in vitro, and/or in vivo, and under clinical trials | Inhibiting proteolytic activation of some viruses | Direct-acting antiviral
[271] Novel siRNA therapeutics demonstrate multi-variant efficacy against ... — While global response strategies, which are predominantly reliant on regular vaccinations, have shifted from zero COVID to living with COVID, there is a distinct lack of broad-spectrum direct acting antiviral therapies that maintain efficacy across evolving SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern.
[273] Viral Pathogenesis and Host Defense: Understanding the ... - Frontiers — So, it is very important to understand the molecular mechanisms that drive viral pathogenesis. Identification of the molecular mechanisms and proteins by which viruses interact with host cells and manipulate immune responses is essential for discovering new antiviral agents and developing more targeted, effective treatments.
[275] Advancements in Viral Pathogenesis and Vaccine Development — Recent advancements have reshaped our approach to viral pathogenesis and vaccine development, offering new tools and strategies to combat infectious diseases more efficiently.
[276] Emerging perspectives on RNA virus-mediated infections: from ... — This review article aims to explore the current understanding of various RNA virus infections, focusing on their pathogenesis and the latest therapeutic interventions. Recent research in this field has led to the identification of novel drug targets, the development of antiviral agents, and the exploration of innovative vaccination strategies.
[278] The Potential of mRNA Vaccines to Fight Against Viruses — Vaccines have always been a critical tool in preventing infectious diseases. However, the development of traditional vaccines often takes a long time and may struggle to address the challenge of rapidly mutating viruses. The emergence of mRNA technology has brought revolutionary changes to vaccine development, particularly in rapidly responding to the threat of emerging viruses. The global
[279] Clinical advancements in mRNA vaccines against viral infections — Clinical advancements in mRNA vaccines against viral infections - ScienceDirect During the 1990s, researchers embarked on preclinical investigations for in vitro synthesis of mRNA for different applications such as protein therapies, gene editing and vaccination strategies for addressing cancer and infectious diseases [, , , ]. The success of mRNA COVID-19 vaccines, exemplified by those developed by Moderna and BioNTech/Pfizer has not only been crucial in combating the pandemic but has also prompted advancements in mRNA-based technology for a range of viral infections. Beyond COVID-19, the review explores the extensive efforts made for the development of mRNA vaccines for diverse infections including influenza, respiratory syncytial virus, HIV, cytomegalovirus, Ebola, Zika, Rabies and Nipah viruses. COVID-19 mRNA vaccines mRNA vaccines beyond COVID-19
[281] Prospects and Challenges in Developing mRNA Vaccines for Infectious ... — Another target in the sights of mRNA vaccine development is the Nipah virus. This zoonotic virus primarily spreads through animals, but person-to-person transmission can occur, leading to severe outcomes like coma or death. ... Li Y., Zhang S. Overcoming the stability challenge of mRNA vaccines. Drug Discov. Today. 2022;27:1260-1267. [Google
[292] SARS-CoV-2 Evolution: Implications for Diagnosis, Treatment, Vaccine ... — SARS-CoV-2's ongoing evolution presents significant challenges for global public health, diagnostics, treatment, and vaccine development. Continued investment in genomic surveillance, adaptive diagnostic strategies, and next-generation vaccine technologies will be crucial for managing the long-term impacts of this evolving virus.
[293] SARS-CoV-2 Variants: Genetic Insights, Epidemiological Tracking, and ... — By integrating genomic surveillance data with epidemiological and clinical findings, this review provides a comprehensive overview of the ongoing evolution of SARS-CoV-2 and its implications for public health strategies and new vaccine development. Keywords: SARS-CoV-2, Alpha, Delta, Omicron, epidemiological tracking, viral fitness, ACE-2
[294] Challenges and Opportunities for Global Genomic Surveillance Strategies ... — Global SARS-CoV-2 genomic surveillance efforts have provided critical data on the ongoing evolution of the virus to inform best practices in clinical care and public health throughout the pandemic. Impactful genomic surveillance strategies generally follow a multi-disciplinary pipeline involving clinical sample collection, viral genotyping, metadata linkage, data reporting, and public health responses. Genomic surveillance strategies are generally comprised of clinical sample collection, viral genetic analysis, linkage to metadata (and possibly clinical) data, reporting, and communication with public health agencies for response and messaging (Figure 1). A robust and sustainable infrastructure for genomic surveillance systems to track SARS-CoV-2 variants around the globe has the potential to substantially reduce the burden of disease through the timely dissemination of data to optimize research priorities, therapeutics development, public health responses, and clinical care.
[295] SARS-CoV-2 Variants: Genetic Insights, Epidemiological ... - PubMed — Epidemiological tracking of these variants is crucial for understanding their spread, informing public health interventions, and guiding vaccine development. The review also explores how specific mutations in the spike protein and other genomic regions contribute to viral fitness, affecting replication efficiency, immune escape, and