Social Design: How products and services can help us act in ways that benefit society

Abstract

I am sitting in the train and opposite to me a couple is reading the newspaper. Every once in a while one of them looks up, checking me and the other passengers out. We are now passing through a tunnel and I can see myself reflected in the window. I see my hair could use a brushing after the rush I was in when catching the train. I refrain from any action though, as I do not dare show any concern for my looks so blatantly in front of other people. I wish I had taken that single seat that was empty when entering the train; at least it would have given me some privacy. Although I feel uncomfortable being so sweaty, I am happy I made it, thanks to that gentleman who helped me out with my bicycle. The bicycle rack on the ground floor at the train station was packed, so I had to lift my bike in one of the upper racks. This is a heavy task, and with a bag on each shoulder I probably looked quite helpless, compelling this friendly (and tall) guy to help me out. While recalling this moment, my thoughts are suddenly interrupted by the voice of the conductor asking to check whether I have validated my public transport pass. I instantly feel my blood pumping through my body again and my body temperature rises significantly. ‘Did I forget to validate it?’ I can’t remember, and I reluctantly place my wallet under his scanning device. ‘Ok. Have a pleasant journey.’ What a relief. Apparently validating my pass has become an ingrained habit by now. As the conductor is checking the passes of the couple opposite me, I remember I wanted to ask him which platform I need to go to for the next leg of my journey. I try to catch his attention, but he is moving away quickly. I decide to look for the platform number on my iPhone using the Railway app. When I find out that it is the platform opposite of the platform my train will arrive at, I finally calm down. Now I can fully devote myself to my writing. The things we use, like our furniture, iPhone apps, or the transportation services we take to get to our destination all play a significant role in the way we live our lives. Often without our being aware of it, the designed environment affects how we act in and experience our world, by making certain behavioural options easier, more attractive, or more common than others. The simple fact that some seats in the train are positioned opposite each other while others are positioned sequentially affects how people behave. Sitting face-to-face probably decreases nose picking and increases small talk. Seating orientation plays a crucial role in the behaviour we display, as illustrated in the example above, where it discouraged me from redoing my hair. And likewise, the design of the bicycle rack described evokes specific social behaviours. Because the upper-rack system is so incredibly user- unfriendly, it actually provides the ideal opportunity for men to put their physical superiority to use and show politeness toward women. And because in many Western societies we tend to rule out any gender inequality, such acts of politeness may be refreshing at times. Additionally, the anecdote above demonstrates how my iPhone provides superb support in planning and managing my journey, but consequently decreases my motivation to socially interact with the conductor or other passengers. Since every detail of my train journey is ‘in the cloud’ and can be retrieved by my iPhone, any interpersonal interaction about timetables or train lines becomes redundant. Because talking to a conductor–a person I do not know–in front of other people–whom I do not know either–sets the perfect scene for me to make a fool of myself, the decision to keep silent is easily made. The chairs in the train, the bicycle rack, and the Railway app have all affected my behaviour and that of others, largely without us being aware of it and probably without any deliberate intention by the designers. Aim of the Thesis The research in this thesis investigates the implicit and often unintended influence of design on human behaviour, for the purpose of designing it. Designers need this knowledge to enable them to take responsibility for the behavioural and social consequences of their designs, as not all of these may be desirable (neither from a user nor from a social perspective). More central to the thesis however, is the assumption that this type of behavioural influence is unique to design in comparison to other interventions that aim to change behaviour, like policies and campaigns. Since many social problems we are facing (e.g. obesity, the depletion of resources, intercultural tensions, or cybercrime) require behavioural change from people to be addressed effectively, design can offer elegant and effective facilitators of such changes. The thesis consists of three parts to explore, support, and test this social design activity. Part 1 draws from a range of theories originating from various disciplines to explain the implicit influence of design. By consolidating these disparate theories, the instrumental value of the theories in realizing desired social change through design is discussed. Emphasis is placed on how people may experience design that is behaviour influencing, and how to consider what type of influence will be both appropriate and effective in attaining a specific social goal. Part 2 develops supportive elements (i.e., a method plus additional techniques) that designers can use to deliberately design products or services that obtain a predefined social effect. We closely examine three design projects in which an initial version of this methodology is used, and we discuss to what extent these supportive elements for designers have increased (social) design performance. The concept designs developed in these projects are examined by social experts, leading to insights regarding both the value and the ‘working principles’ of the designs. Part 3 compares design to more common interventions that seek to stimulate pro-social behaviour, such as signs or text. We expected that design’s implicit influence would be responsible for its behavioural effects. In a field experiment conducted in a school canteen, we tested this hypothesis by comparing implicit influence with explicit influence in changing behaviour, in addition to comparing two types of interventions, i.e., product and text. The studies reported were conducted to gain understanding of how to facilitate the design of original products and services that engender desirable social effects. To stimulate these effects, the designer is encouraged to deliberately direct the implicit influence products unavoidably have. Therefore, the thesis has a clear design perspective, intended to deliver actionable insights for designers. Social Problems, Behaviour & Design In order to conceptualize the implicit role design plays in the social realm, Chapter 1 explains how existing products have contributed to many of the social problems we are currently facing by implicitly affecting behaviour. Human beings are social by nature. We have lived in groups since the dawn of our existence, and our individual position in relation to the group is therefore inherent to being human. This means that since the beginning of our collective existence we have always been confronted–explicitly or implicitly–with situations in which we have to make the decision whether to act in favour of the group or in favour of ourselves. Do I share my banana, or do I eat it alone? Today, this is no different, save for the fact that we have established societies with millions of people living together. The wellbeing of a group so large is no longer experienced as closely related to personal wellbeing. Many people may consider our changing climate a problem, but few experience this as a personal problem upon which one should act immediately. Moreover, tackling such global or social problems requires willpower, because it often means giving up comfort, flexibility or efficiency. More abstractly, collective concerns (like sustainability) are not always internalized by the individual, and are not always in line with personal concerns (such as seeking comfort and convenience). This in itself may be a static fact, but the very fact that we have designed an environment so well adapted to our personal concerns means that we sometimes invite behaviours that are detrimental to all of us in the long term. My car offers me a convenient and comfortable means of transport, but we know by now that the emissions produced by it negatively influence climate change in the long term. Many products and services implicitly advocate acting in ways that benefit oneself rather than society. The question therefore arises: how can we design implicit influence that helps users act in favour of society more often? Part 1 – Understanding The Influence of Design on Human Behaviour Scholars from a variety of disciplines have studied the influence of products and services on people’s actions. A theoretical comparison of six theories underlying this phenomenon shows that product influence can be studied and understood either analytically or synthetically. Behaviour– when affected by design–can be understood as the result of the interaction between user and product (using an analytic approach), or it can be understood as part of a larger context in which other cultural, contextual, and social factors that play a role in shaping this behaviour are examined (using a synthetic approach). We illustrate that the more holistic theories of the latter support designers understanding of what behaviour is best to change; in other words: ‘where to intervene.’ Analytical theories may then deliver the knowledge regarding how to actually embody this influence in the design. Although these theories are explanatory and therefore supportive to design activity, little insight is given into the experiential side of product influence. How do people perceive and experience things that affect their behaviour? To answe