Effects of Pre-Teaching and Re-Teaching on Math Achievement and Academic Self-Concept of Students with Low Achievement in Math.

Abstract

Literature Review Despite continued concern and effort to meet their needs, low achieving students continue to represent a sizable population in schools (Manning & Baruth, 1996), with the needs of low achievers in math alone tending to represent 4% to 7% of students (Fuchs, Fuchs & Prentice, 2004). Low achievers have been identified using a variety of criteria, typically by comparing their achievement to that of their peers. For example, Fuchs et al. (2004), as well as Slavin (1989), identify low achievers as those students performing one to two years behind their same age peers. In addition to academic difficulties, low achievers are vulnerable to lower self-concept. In broad terms, self-concept reflects one's self-perception, as well as feelings of worth and satisfaction (Joseph, 1979). Evidence clearly indicates an interaction between self-concept and achievement, with achievement effecting self-concept and vice versa (Beane & Lipka, 1987). While the directionality of the causal relationship is not clear, research does indicate a relationship between achievement and self-concept (e.g.; Hamachek, 1995; Rumbaugh & Brown, 2000). Self-concept can also be broken down into context-specific domains (Shavelson, Hubner & Stanton, 1976). For example, Boersma and Chapmen (1992) define academic self-concept as stable attitudes and feelings one possesses involving her/his capacity to be successful on school-based activities, and research supports this differentiation (Hamachek, 1995). Thus, it follows that low self-concept can be seen as a general factor impacting achievement; or, one or more components of self-concept may impact achievement in a particular content area(s). Identifying effective instructional strategies for low achievers has become increasingly important. These typically take the form of supplemental programs that provide instruction outside of the classroom. For example, after-school tutoring has improved math achievement in low achievers (Hock, Pulvers, Desher, & Schumaker, 2001). Supplemental instruction approaches can be classified according to sequence of provision. Specifically, supplemental instruction can be provided before (i.e., pre-teaching) or after (i.e., re-teaching) initial exposure to academic material in the classroom. Re-teaching is a common, if not the standard, strategy for assisting students to acquire previously unattained academic objectives (Harris & Sipay, 1985; Lewis & Lynch, 1988). It is characterized by follow-up instruction and practice subsequent to classroom instruction (Collins, 1998). According to Slavin (1985), extensive studies across disciplines support the effectiveness of re-teaching as a means to increase academic achievement for students with low ahcievment. For example, the previously noted study by Hock et al. (2001) found post-instruction after-school tutoring (i.e., re-teaching) effectively increased math performance for low achieving students. In contrast to post-instruction approaches, pre-teaching is based on the tenet that learning is facilitated through advanced introduction of key concepts and terms that serve as cognitive anchors upon which academic content can be organized (Ausubel, 1960). Examples of pre-teaching strategies include advanced organizers, performance objectives, and graphic organizers. According to Bassoppo-Moyo (1997), structured and organized pre-teaching tasks allow students to become familiar with what will be encountered and required, as well as the opportunity to integrate new material with previously acquired content and experiences. Although evidence supports the effectiveness of pre-instructional strategies across a broad age range, existing research has largely focused on reading and reading-based subject content. For example, pre-teaching of critical vocabulary, as opposed to non-central vocabulary, improved students' reading comprehension by helping them identify target concepts (Wixson, 1986). …