Raw and <i>Sous-Vide</i>-Cooked Red Cardoon Stalks (<i>Cynara cardunculus</i> L. var. <i>altilis</i> DC): (Poly)phenol Bioaccessibility, Anti-inflammatory Activity in the Gastrointestinal Tract, and Prebiotic Activity

Abstract

The <i>in vitro</i> anti-inflammatory and prebiotic activity and the content and profile of bioaccessible (poly)phenols and catabolites of raw and <i>sous-vide</i>-cooked red cardoon (<i>Cynara cardunculus</i> L. var. <i>altilis</i> DC) were investigated during gastrointestinal (GI) digestion. Raw cardoon after <i>in vitro</i> GI digestion had 0.7% bioaccessible (poly)phenols, which protected against lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation by counteracting IL-8, IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-10 secretions in differentiated Caco-2 cells. Contrarily, GI-digested s<i>ous vide</i> cardoon showed higher (poly)phenol bioaccessibility (59.8%) and exerted proinflammatory effects in Caco-2 cells. (Poly)phenols were highly metabolized during the first 8 h of <i>in vitro</i> fermentation, and nine catabolites were produced during 48 h of fermentation. Colonic-fermented raw and <i>sous-vide</i>-cooked cardoon did not show anti-inflammatory activity in HT-29 cells but presented potential prebiotic activity, comparable to the commercial prebiotic FOS, by stimulating health-promoting bacteria such as <i>Bifidobacterium</i> spp. and <i>Lactobacillus</i>/<i>Enterococcus</i> spp. and by increasing the production of total SCFAs, especially acetate.