Towards Third-Generation Living Lab Networks in Cities

Abstract

IntroductionLiving labs are increasingly accepted as a prominent form of open innovation (e.g., Bergvall-Kåreborn et al., 2015; Brankaert et al., 2015; Guimont & Lapointe, 2016; Hakkarainen & Hyysalo, 2016). The roots of the concept may be traced back to Knight (1749), who referred to “living laboratory” as the elements and conditions of a body and an environment of an