STUDYING TROPHIC ECOLOGY IN MARINE ECOSYSTEMS USING FATTY ACIDS: A PRIMER ON ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Abstract

Fatty acids (FA) represent a large group of molecules that comprise the majority of lipids found in all organisms. Their great diversity, biochemical restrictions and, in some cases, unique origin among plants and animals has fostered a number of areas of research, ranging from assessment of animal nutrition and metabolism, to investigating trophic interactions and ecosystem structure. Over the past three decades, we have observed the use of FA develop from a potential tool for delineating food webs (Ackman and Eaton 1966) to a powerful technique for quantitative assessment of predator diets (Iverson et al. 2004). Studies that have the FA found in predator found in have and et al. et al. et al. et al. and quantitative of et al. et al. and and of the and of et al. et al. et al. the FA a predator in a of the of quantitative FA et al. have in the use of FA to the and diets of trophic and that the use of FA tool a and that a of have to FA and to the of we some in the from the the and of FA to among we and to for the and of FA in the of we and of the we to and and the to FA to and food webs in three in FA (Iverson of the predator we in among and et al. et al. et al. use of FA the use of the of a unique FA found in a predator that to a origin and in FA in for of FA of among FA that to a in the in et al. and in to use FA to from FA of predator and (Iverson et al. a to the of FA that to that observed in the for predator FA of the FA of all potential to in and et al. et al. of of FA the of that to of and and for all of the FA of the and the to of FA and of the of to a that the of and to to the use of FA for trophic interactions in trophic we in to use FA in a of and to and and and and potential the and for and some to and the we in the use of a group of that the of in in and lipids that FA of structure. FA of to and to a and the FA in food of and of and some (Iverson and in and food webs trophic the FA that in for of FA found in and of to the FA and in in et al. FA of to represent the in and that in the of of FA and of all and the FA and FA of the number of the number of and the of the to the group that a group use the of has the has of a have to the of the to the that the of the of and the of to the group and the has the of the FA the in of FA FA a of the number of the number of and the of the to the group that all FA a FA that Their in the food to in FA and and FA FA FA some FA a the to the the the FA a the FA in and to a FA represent the of lipids and the majority of lipids found in and of three FA molecules to a FA the FA and the of FA in and and FA of three FA and a of in the of the FA from the and the of a FA to a and in a to a FA and a and to a a group to the of the group to a of in of a of the have to a a to the the of of the FA and and to that to a of to of a FA to a the FA and the have the FA have a of of to in in of and all and some and of in (Ackman et al. and et al. found in the and of and et al. and comprise the majority of lipids in the of and et al. the of FA to a that a of the of all of the of lipids and to FA in to in and of group of the a a to the in of of the FA from of the of a to the lipids to in a of ranging from to and found the food in and in the of and found in of (Ackman of lipids and and to the FA of organisms. and and et al. of all of and to the of FA in predator FA of predator the of three FA that in FA that some the and and FA from in the to the potential from in and the to FA of FA from that the of a from the predator FA of of and in FA the to FA that to the and we of in to animals in the in the of to predator FA to of and FA and and the and a and the lipids to FA and, in the of a and the of the lipids and the FA from of in the to and FA to the et al. FA that in predator lipids have from that predator and, have to the FA for for FA in and all FA in in in the of that the FA and of the of in animals have a to FA in of in FA FA in the of in to that in the (Iverson et al. that of FA metabolism, the of FA and FA the of that the in to FA and in the to the to FA number of the FA the of FA for and in and a predator FA in a in in that have to use the FA in the to the for the of in that the of in from and that of FA to for the of FA to for and to the and of in a predator has to FA to a et al. FA in a predator that of all FA some of the of the has from the of FA and to the of FA of to that of of and and all we the and FA of the a FA that the to a a the the FA FA the that to and, and FA the of in to the of the a that to the of the a that the of some and FA to the FA in the Studies that to to all that FA FA FA and of the of FA from to in the to in FA to the to FA the the of FA and and of the of FA and to and and and the of diets of from in of that and a in the of of to of and of FA that have and to a to the FA in the of some and to of of and observed (Iverson and et al. 2004). the has that in to of et al. of and et al. of in and have that and to from et al. 2004). the of to from of and the the and to for in of (Iverson et al. et al. of FA of FA from and to and and animals and for a predator a all the FA that in to and the animal a of and the the of from and we that the in in the predator to for of FA in that found in (Iverson et al. that to of FA in animals a of some FA has in and et al. of among the in that has that of the of and from in and have in FA and the of FA to have and FA in in the of of of in from et al. and in and predator of FA (Iverson et al. et al. et al. et al. Their in of and the of in the the of FA and in the FA of FA in the predator and and in of a predator of FA and of and of the FA the and of some the for to of FA et al. FA from from and the to a in in et al. and in to in and and et al. in the in FA found in the et al. the FA of in the of molecules in the of some of animals of number of and the the of the and the of a group of of and of in and in the of the of in has a of lipids and for and to that a in a of found in of of has a number of a to the of and et al. have a in that in that the of in the of the of the and quantitative and lipids that have FA of a of to and in some in that animals and the the large in the in the for et al. from in the in the of FA of a in et al. et al. and FA in and of of et al. 2004). the of that have and a of the of (Iverson and the of has in a to and, to in FA of the of the of a and FA in for and the of animals has a FA to that of the from et al. et al. FA of the of to in FA the some of FA from the that FA the of a the of and FA et al. et al. quantitative FA and have the lipids from in the of in the for a et al. from from has that FA of the et al. and and the of to the the animal from the of and the to and et al. et al. in and the FA of the of the to in and from et al. and et al. to the in FA of that the for from that the of the and in 2004). to of to we that from the the in the the and et al. in the of the and of the has that the of the of the the for the the in and et al. of the of the the FA of the to the FA of has to in that et al. and et al. et al. et al. 2004). the to in of FA and FA the and 2004). FA that the of FA the of of a found to the et al. 2004). that the the (Iverson et al. 2004). of the to some cases, FA that the to the FA in the to of of in the of and among animals from of FA from of in the and among that from have diets and et al. and a that have from of the to in the et al. and and among to and that to the to the of and the of to of the and of from FA of FA of origin in the and of the of in from the of and and and the a FA the from to in and that the et al. FA from the and the have a FA in from in FA from and the the of that from FA to large of and in the the of FA the of a FA of a for the use of from that have to to and (Iverson in that the FA in the the the in the of (Iverson et al. the FA of to that of the for to has in of and of to a in the of to of the of the the FA a predator that that in a and from lipids and in to the FA of the the from to FA of the of and the of FA from in the and to in et al. of from of of the has that the FA of from and et al. FA of that the from the in the for the of et al. and from the of the of a the FA of the potential cases, the and the and of have et al. et al. 2004). to the the to the of the predator and to in the in the predator and and the of FA the predator in FA of in and et al. et al. that to et al. to to that the that the of FA of the of all from animals and and to FA in a of the and to and some of and of to in of FA in the a of in for in the in to the lipids in the the in to a for of of for that for the in of and the in the for large in for the of in and the of in have in that have to of of and FA to the and a in for a for the and of for in that in the for that and FA of in and and in to the and to the a that has in and to the the of of from the and in a for of to the from a in a and to the of the and in the for in and for in in the in a for to the from the and from the in the for the from of and to the and the of a for the and of from et al. and large and large in to and to and in a and for to the lipids from a of the the to a of to for in a and for and of the diets of and et al. and some et al. and for and to and in large from the and in to in for quantitative a for and the for to the of some and and, and the of in and the the and FA of predator and potential FA lipids from the a of in the et al. and of the and a et al. and the of the and technique to in and to from and in and and (Iverson et al. et al. for of in and a for the of and in the of a and have the for et al. et al. have et al. et al. et al. and et al. 2004). of the and to and we the of the and of FA and the of in the we for and in the of FA and of FA lipids to FA for a and and FA that have in a FA FA to have that and (Iverson et al. et al. 2004). we and have that have in to in the in of the to and the of in the that the use of in the and in of some to use we the use of the for for the in in for FA to from and to to the potential of the the of all a to to that all of and the of in to in of the the of in to in to of in a the the and in have for the of in and in has in and et al. et al. of a of a of in and of a for FA et al. the potential in the to a of the FA of the FA of technique of the FA of the a of the et al. 2004). the a of the of to and et al. 2004). for the FA of the from a of to that of the of in quantitative to to of to and 2004). the use of has and the number of FA to to that in to of and and for FA in in in the of of the all in the predator and and in and of in in the of and and of et al. and to in the of the of all FA of and the the of FA and the of and and the to the FA the the of FA unique areas of et al. the of the of FA to and of et al. FA FA of and in of FA large of FA in a to and all some from lipids and to FA to the potential for the to a to a a group for the group in the FA (Iverson and et al. to a of and have to of the in number of animals and lipids from the et al. of the FA and a a the of a of and the the to and FA and from the the to a of the of and the the of the and the to of and that to FA and of a among and the in of FA and a to to the a of a et al. the of the has and the the the of and from and the FA and of FA and the the in the from that of the to the of of found the animal and in that have in the of the that in FA to the in to a FA to a the a and and and a the the and (Ackman et al. and in in the the of of the of the of among and the in of from and in a of of the the a that the that the the of all FA in the to the for the from we use the in a the the the that the and from the and for FA of in a the and to the and a of a a in the to and number and of in the the of the a a of in in a for the a a and a a the the have a a of a a of the the that in the of from a of the to the for of all in a et al. for the the from the and the of the and that and the for of FA for FA have of in to of all some of FA for that and in the for a of from FA to a that of all of to of that in the of and some and of and the use of a a the from have (Ackman of have and to a that and use for of FA of of and the to FA and the the and to to of the and and a in and and to a of the that to the and the the to a the to that have in a of the and in we to that the to the of FA for a in to a to for of the in the and for to that that to the and to in to the that of the of and the the the for the that we for of and in and to to the a of the the in to of from the and all for of and in the use of a a of that the and that the of the and of the and of the of the and and the and the that the the of the and of FA and to FA and the the a in in of the the of FA a group of the use to in and large and in large in of potential for and that the to in a in that of of to use FA to in FA large in the in the and the all FA the to FA from of that in and for all in the use of to FA all that to in a of in the in and in in to in a and from of in and a to from all FA the and, of FA have a in the to use for of of of and in to FA a for FA in the use of have of the that the of and of FA the of and and the that in among in that from of the et al. that a a to of of a of some FA that in a a for the and, to the use of to the in and the all FA a of of the to the the of the and the the the the use of that to areas quantitative of of and, from number of in the and number of a of for FA found in to to the of the to the for all FA in a and to a of quantitative FA and have in the for the FA the the for a and number of all in a FA have and areas FA of to the of to the of to of to a of to all to to to a that in the and of the FA of the number of to predator FA trophic lipids to use the in the to use to and among in of FA of in to for a in of a FA a in of a in a the of all FA among of the of FA of in a in of FA to the and of have to trophic interactions and and among of animals and et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. to that the of the a unique that a in the of a to of that for of the the FA et al. in diets from a FA a of and to in et al. a trophic a in of and in to the predator of a and in in have to of of FA in et al. in in the (Iverson et al. to the of in from the of FA a of in (Iverson et al. et al. and to from in the of FA in predator and of the FA in a in to the FA of in diets predator and FA the in a of the FA of the predator (Iverson et al. 2004). of the of in the a quantitative that et al. and have to in and of in et al. et al. the a of FA the a that has the of of the the number of and that of of origin of to that the FA have of of FA among has to FA in and et al. et al. et al. 2004). of and to of FA in a the a of in the of of and the that FA and FA in among of of the among a of have to FA group et al. et al. in the of and that in some in a number of and in three the the and the of that for FA in the of the the of the of FA that the in a group the number of FA and the to the FA in some to of for the for a FA of the FA and the of a use the FA that to the a and the the of from and the three to and to among a of of the FA of of to among of to and the FA for the to among large of to a that represent of the in the for that in et al. the to et al. the use of in a a of a a FA and use the in the that all of the in the FA in the from to and that a of in and in and FA for use in a FA that to a have the and in the the the and that FA to the of the large and to of and potential of to number that and in all the of a a large number of FA of and to in FA potential in the of predator the and in FA among and to the of the the in the number and of a predator and among potential and of and the predator and FA to predator metabolism, to in a quantitative in a the of a to predator FA (Iverson et al. 2004). the that and to have FA that in the predator in a and that the FA of all potential to that of predator a we to represent the of all FA in predator to the that of a FA to trophic for to that to a in FA in predator and in to a to the for all the FA FA and FA of a predator all of FA of for the of a in we have in a ecosystem and and the FA in predator FA in and FA of of and to the and trophic interactions among and et al. et al. the FA of in of that (Iverson et al. of the of the in et al. the to predator FA to the in the the FA of and the of FA that to that of a FA the that and the predator FA to the FA of to the in the has to of diets of and and to (Iverson and et al. 2004). of and to to the and the the that to to of and to the for and FA of predator that a and the in FA and FA in to the of and in to the in and the of of all and the and and FA of potential and of the to FA in a for to of and the and a powerful to the of the to and FA (Iverson et al. 2004). of the of and the some that for and and, the to group that a in et al. the the of and some for to of the diets of in the in the in the ecosystem to the of a the the to the of that to the for and the and in the in predator FA that to have all in all and for in a quantitative et al. have the use of from predator has a of a FA for a that of FA FA and to of a of the of a FA in the predator the in the a to use for that FA in for that of have to and to of diets (Iverson et al. of for predator to the of and of a FA of to FA for to predator the of the the for a quantitative the of a for to of and for a of the of and a to in and FA the FA and the and to the of in the of predator a the to in the FA and of for a from the of and in to the of in of the of the of the predator and the of has a that to the in the of for the and to of the of to that have FA and the the to and of and of in the FA in the and the of in the FA and of in to in diets and in (Iverson et al. 2004). the use of FA and to that FA ecosystem for the and FA and the and (Iverson et al. et al. et al. that the number of FA in the the number of that in the number of the number of (FA) in the of to some the predator and, the of the the of and the in that to in the the of in a from a of predator a of to that to that comprise the of the and the predator for to of a powerful tool in that has the and of et al. et al. and and the that that to the a we to some of and the potential of and the of all of in and and that of have the that the of of that of of in the FA of to that of that FA to that of the found the in the and of of of the the of that of the to in of FA in to and in and of and a number of and for FA animals of in the of from the of in et al. et al. to of in the of the to the has from some that FA the of et al. and and et al. that to that has has for that and in the of from that and that of and of from animals to to to and and the of some that of the of the and for lipids have FA and in the for the from the in of and the use of and the of and all in of and to the that represent the has we to to and for from have found to et al. and et al. for and large the of the the and the of a in the of found in the and and in the et al. et al. of the to FA from the in the of a of for to of et al. for of in the and to in to of the have found in a of and the of for of to and of of the to and FA in the to in the FA has the potential to a powerful technique in and quantitative in areas of in trophic we have to to for some in all cases, to use and in and of the to the to in and and in the and the of and the and the and have and in and of we for of the the and from for the of the to the for the