Mathematics Success of Black Middle School Students: Direct and Indirect Effects of Teacher Expectations and Reform Practices.

Abstract

Abstract Student self-report data from 933 Black middle school students and standardized mathematics test scores (SAT-10) were used to examine the relationship among student perceptions of teacher expectations and reform instructional practices, aspects of student motivation, and three student mathematics performance outcomes-time spent studying, expected grade in mathematics, and SAT-10 Math scores. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the influence of the teacher variables on student outcomes, as mediated by student motivation. Students who reported greater teacher use of reform practices and higher teacher expectations showed more desirable levels of motivation to learn mathematics. Teacher use of reform practices and higher teacher expectations had direct effects on SAT-10 scores, as well as indirect effects on all three mathematics outcomes examined mediated through the three aspects of student motivation. Finally, multiple squared correlations revealed meaningful proportions of variance explained in student motivation and mathematics outcome variables ranging from 4% to 29%. Introduction The acquisition of mathematics knowledge and problem solving skills in middle school is the foundation for a trajectory leading to mathematics success in high school, college, and beyond (see for example, Riley 1997). That trajectory is also key to students being prepared and competing for careers in an increasingly global and technological economy (e.g., A tanda, 1999). Research has shown that the successful acquisition of mathematics knowledge and skills is influenced by numerous environmental and student factors. For example, research has linked teacher expectations for student performance and classroom instructional practices with mathematics related educational outcomes including the cognitive, behavioral, and academic performance of students (e.g., Turner, Meyer, Midgley, & Patrick, 2003; Tyler & Boelter, 2008). Student motivation to learn and achieve in mathematics, a complex and multif aceted construct, has also been shown to affect a constellation of mathematics educational outcomes including school behavior, attimdes and beliefs about school, grades, and standardized test scores (e.g., Hidi, Renninger, & Krapp, 2004; Pajares & Graham, 1999; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Research has also linked teacher expectations and practices with student motivation. For example, it has been shown that the combination of teachers both communicating high expectations for student perf ormance and applying teaching practices in line with the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics' (NCTM) (1989, 2000) NCTM Standards leads to students developing more adaptive motivational patterns, which in turn leads to success in mathematics (Stipek, Salmon, Giwin, Kazemi, Saxe, & MacGyvers, 1998; Turner, Meyer, Midgley, & Patrick, 2003). Research has also found that teacher expectations, teacher instructional practices, and aspects of student motivation are even more important to the school success of students who have been historically discriminated against, and who have historically experienced fewer opportunities to learn meaningful mathematics (Paul, 2005; Silver, Smith, & Nelson, 1995). Thus, research and practice efforts focused on establishing effective opportunities to learn mathematics for students from historically underserved populations should consider critical variables such as: (a) the application of reform instructional practices, (b) the influence of student perceptions of teacher expectations for student mathematics achievement, and (c) the role of various dimensions of student motivation in the acquisition of mathematics knowledge and skills. A growing body of research has inf onned our understanding of the most effective instructional practices in teaching mathematics. For example, in a study of the nature of schools and their accompanying success in mathematics, Gutierrez (2007) chose nine high schools in the United States that were non-selective and served a large proportion of Latino, Black, and/or working class students. …