Table of Contents
Overview
Definition and Importance
Immunology is a branch of biology and medicine that focuses on the study of immune systems across all species, encompassing both the physiological functioning of the immune system in health and disease, as well as the malfunctions that lead to immunological disorders such as autoimmune diseases and hypersensitivities.[5.1] This relatively new science has evolved to become increasingly complex and efficient, providing both innate and acquired immunity.[3.1] The immune system plays a crucial role in recognizing and eliminating pathogens, distinguishing between "self" and "non-self" antigens, and developing immunologic memory to respond swiftly to subsequent infections.[4.1] The importance of immunology extends beyond basic biological understanding; it is pivotal in various clinical applications, including organ transplantation, cancer treatment, and the management of infectious diseases.[2.1] Furthermore, immunology is integral to public health initiatives, particularly in the context of vaccination programs aimed at achieving herd immunity. Vaccination not only protects individuals but also contributes to community health by limiting disease spread, thereby safeguarding those who cannot be vaccinated, such as newborns and immunocompromised individuals.[34.1] The effectiveness of vaccination programs is assessed through metrics such as disease incidence, which reflects the direct impact of immunization on reducing new cases within populations.[36.1] Overall, the study of immunology is essential for advancing medical science and improving public health outcomes.Components of the Immune System
The immune system is composed of various components that work together to protect the body from pathogens. It can be broadly categorized into two main types: the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system. The innate immune system serves as the body's first line of defense, providing a rapid and broad-spectrum response to pathogens. It recognizes pathogens through pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) that bind to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), initiating inflammatory responses and recruiting defense cells to the site of infection.[17.1] This system is characterized by its immediate response, which begins within hours of pathogen exposure, and its ability to adapt through mechanisms such as trained immunity.[17.1] In contrast, the adaptive immune system is responsible for specific and sustained responses to pathogens. It involves the activation of B cells and T cells, which recognize specific antigens. B cells are crucial for humoral immunity, producing antibodies that neutralize pathogens or mark them for destruction by other immune cells.[16.1] T cells, including CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, play vital roles in cellular immunity; CD4+ T cells help orchestrate the immune response, while CD8+ T cells directly kill infected cells.[15.1] The adaptive immune response also includes the generation of immunologic memory, allowing for a quicker and more effective response upon subsequent exposures to the same pathogen.[16.1] The immune system comprises two primary components: the innate and adaptive immune systems, which interact synergistically to mount an effective immune response. The innate immune system acts as the first line of defense, initiating a response within 4 to 96 hours after exposure to pathogens. This early response involves the recruitment of defense cells triggered by pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) binding to pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs).[14.1] Following this initial response, the adaptive immune system provides a highly specific and sustained attack against pathogens through the action of B cells, T cells, and antibodies.[13.1] The adaptive immune response, however, takes several days to become protective and is characterized by its specificity, as only a limited number of B cells and T cells can recognize any one epitope.[14.1] Additionally, the microbiota plays a crucial role in shaping immune responses by influencing the production of cytokines and the differentiation of immune cells, thereby enhancing the overall efficacy of the immune system.[10.1] This interplay between the innate and adaptive systems, along with the contributions of the microbiome, underscores the complexity and coordination required for effective immune function. Furthermore, the microbiota plays a significant role in shaping the immune system from birth, influencing both innate and adaptive immune functions. Commensal gut bacteria and enteric viruses are known to stimulate the development of the mucosal immune system, promoting interactions with environmental antigens that can enhance immune responses.[9.1] This relationship underscores the importance of the microbiome in maintaining immune homeostasis and its potential implications for immune-mediated disorders.[10.1]History
Early Concepts of Immunity
The history of immunology indicates that smallpox was one of the deadliest diseases in the 18th century, likely introduced to the colonies by British immigrants or African slaves in the 17th century. Due to the dispersed nature of the colonists, outbreaks of smallpox were infrequent, despite the virus's airborne transmission and its potential lethality, as it could take up to two weeks for symptoms to manifest in an affected individual.[46.1] During this period, the search for effective healing methods persisted, with figures like John Brown in Edinburgh proposing a dichotomy of diseases and treatments, which sparked lively debates among his followers.[45.1] This context of limited understanding and the urgent need for effective treatments laid the groundwork for future advancements in immunology. In 1798, Edward Jenner's pioneering work in vaccination marked a significant milestone in the field. His demonstration of smallpox vaccination laid the groundwork for the development of immunology as a distinct branch of medical science.[64.1] This period also saw the emergence of various theories regarding disease, including the "germ theory" proposed by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch, which posited that diseases were caused by specific pathogens.[67.1] The 19th century was characterized by significant advancements in understanding the immune response. Louis Pasteur further advanced immunology by developing vaccines for rabies and anthrax, which underscored the practical applications of immunological concepts.[68.1] Additionally, experiments conducted during this time revealed that blood serum from animals with acquired immunity could be utilized to cure and prevent infections in other animals, leading to the development of serum therapy and the introduction of antibodies into immunological discourse.[69.1] The field of immunology is a relatively new branch of medical sciences that originated from microbiology, leading to the study of infectious diseases and the body's responses to them.[66.1] By the end of the 19th century, several key paradigms had been established, notably the germ theory of disease, which posited that bacteria were the causative agents of various diseases.[67.1] This era was characterized by significant controversies, particularly regarding the understanding of immunity. Notably, Sir Almoth's findings indicated that antibodies could assist in phagocytosis, thereby contributing to the resolution of the debate between humoral and cellular immunity.[66.1] These foundational developments set the stage for future advancements in immunology, reflecting the evolving nature of medical science during this transformative period.[67.1]Key Milestones in Immunology
Immunology has undergone significant evolution since its inception, marked by key milestones that have shaped our understanding of the immune system and disease prevention. One of the earliest and most pivotal moments in immunology was Edward Jenner's demonstration in 1798 that vaccination with cowpox could protect against smallpox, establishing the foundation for the field of immunization.[39.1] This discovery was crucial as it confirmed the existence of an immune response, which was further supported by observations that individuals who recovered from smallpox did not contract the disease again.[39.1] The late 19th century saw further advancements with the work of scientists such as Louis Pasteur, who developed live, attenuated vaccines for diseases like chicken cholera and anthrax between 1885 and 1905.[37.1] This period also marked the introduction of the concept of phagocytosis by Ernst Haeckel in 1862, which contributed to the understanding of how the body defends itself against pathogens.[37.1] Additionally, Ilya Mechnikoff's pioneering research on cellular immunity through phagocytosis laid the groundwork for the cellular theory of immunity.[37.1] As the field progressed into the 20th century, the principles of immunology began to inform vaccine development more profoundly. Modern vaccine development relies on a comprehensive understanding of the aetiology, epidemiology, and pathogenesis of infectious diseases, as well as the immune responses necessary for effective protection.[41.1] This has led to the emergence of various vaccine technologies, including inactivated, live attenuated, and subunit vaccines, as well as novel approaches such as DNA/RNA vaccines and viral vector vaccines.[44.1] The impact of these milestones is evident in public health, particularly with the eradication of smallpox, the first human disease to be eliminated through vaccination efforts stemming from Jenner's work.[47.1] The lessons learned from early immunology continue to influence contemporary vaccine strategies, addressing challenges such as vaccine hesitancy and the need for vaccines against newly identified pathogens.[48.1] Overall, the history of immunology is characterized by a series of significant discoveries and advancements that have fundamentally transformed our approach to disease prevention and public health.Recent Advancements
Innovations in Immunological Techniques
Recent advancements in immunology have led to significant innovations in diagnostic techniques and treatment personalization for immune-mediated disorders. One notable development is the creation of the Mal-ID algorithm, which utilizes machine learning to diagnose immunological conditions based solely on B and T cell receptor sequences and structures. In a study involving nearly 600 participants, this algorithm demonstrated remarkable success in accurately identifying various immune states, including healthy individuals and those with infections or autoimmune diseases such as lupus and Type 1 diabetes.[103.1] Additionally, the understanding of immune-mediated processes, which can lead to chronic inflammation and contribute to autoimmune disorders and allergies, has been enhanced through recent research. This knowledge is crucial for developing targeted therapies that can more effectively address these conditions.[102.1] Moreover, the development of AI-Cell, an innovative tool that simulates human immune cell responses to RNA- and DNA-based nanomedicines, represents a groundbreaking advancement in gene therapy. This technology has the potential to make gene therapies safer and more personalized, thereby improving treatment outcomes for patients.[104.1] These innovations not only improve diagnostic accuracy but also facilitate the personalization of treatment plans, ultimately enhancing patient care in the field of immunology.Developments in Vaccines and Therapies
Recent advancements in mRNA vaccine technology have significantly transformed the landscape of vaccine development, particularly in the context of infectious diseases such as HIV, Zika, Ebola, and influenza. These advancements have led to improved stability of mRNA and enhanced efficacy of delivery systems, which are crucial for the successful deployment of vaccines against various viral infections.[79.1] The success of mRNA COVID-19 vaccines, such as those developed by Moderna and BioNTech/Pfizer, has not only played a pivotal role in combating the pandemic but has also catalyzed further research into mRNA-based vaccines for a broader range of viral infections, including HIV and cytomegalovirus.[80.1] Currently, several mRNA-based HIV vaccines are undergoing clinical trials to assess their safety and efficacy, marking a significant step forward in HIV vaccine development.[81.1] Compared to conventional vaccines, mRNA-based vaccines offer notable advantages in terms of safety, efficacy, and production efficiency, although they are still based on relatively new technology, and long-term adverse effects remain to be fully understood.[82.1] The critical need for rapid and adaptable vaccine production technologies has been underscored by the emergence of new viral pandemics, highlighting the importance of mRNA vaccines in future vaccine research.[83.1] Moreover, the encapsulation of mRNA in lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) has emerged as a breakthrough method to protect the mRNA and enhance its delivery into cells, presenting new opportunities for the development of tailored mRNA vaccines against various infectious diseases.[84.1] As research continues, the potential of mRNA technology to address complex health challenges, including the ongoing fight against HIV, is becoming increasingly evident.Types Of Immunity
Innate Immunity
Innate immunity serves as the body's first line of defense against pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, and parasites. This system is characterized by a rapid response that begins within 4 to 96 hours after exposure to an infectious agent, involving the recruitment of defense cells triggered by pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) binding to pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs).[123.1] It operates on multiple fronts, combating germs on the skin, in bodily fluids such as blood, and within the tissues of the body.[120.1] The innate immune system works closely with the adaptive immune system, which is antigen-specific and takes several days to become protective. If the innate immune response fails to eliminate the pathogens, the adaptive immune system takes over to target and remove specific antigens.[120.1] The interaction between the innate and adaptive immune systems is crucial for effective pathogen clearance, emphasizing their synergistic roles in both physiological and pathological contexts.[122.1] Following the initial innate response, the adaptive immune system engages in a highly specific and sustained attack against pathogens through the activation of B cells, T cells, and the production of antibodies.[122.1] This collaboration is essential for generating a protective response against various pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, parasites, and abnormal cells such as tumors and transplanted cells.[121.1] Recent research has highlighted the importance of innate immunity in vaccination strategies, particularly through the concept of "trained immunity" (TRIM). This phenomenon refers to the long-term innate immune memory that enhances the response of innate immune cells to subsequent infections, even those caused by unrelated pathogens.[129.1] The primary goal of vaccination is to prevent pathogen-specific infections; however, the indirect consequences of vaccination may also include the maintenance of homeostasis and the prevention of infection-induced complications.[127.1] Understanding these aspects is essential for public health approaches to vaccination, as they underscore the role of trained immunity in improving the overall effectiveness of immunization programs.[127.1] The innate immune system is characterized by its ability to recognize the host organism and limit damage to itself while responding to infections.[121.1] The inflammatory response plays a crucial role in this process by increasing the flow of lymph that contains antigen and antigen-bearing cells into lymphoid tissue. Additionally, complement fragments on microbial surfaces and changes induced in cells that have taken up microorganisms provide signals that synergize in activating lymphocytes, which are essential for the adaptive immune response.[124.1] While the innate immune system provides immediate defense, the unique features of adaptive immunity, such as the ability to recognize all pathogens specifically and enhance protection against reinfection, are based on the clonal selection of lymphocytes bearing antigen-specific receptors.[124.1]Adaptive Immunity
Adaptive immunity, also referred to as acquired or specific immunity, is a sophisticated component of the immune system that evolves in response to specific pathogens. Unlike innate immunity, which provides an immediate but non-specific defense, adaptive immunity is characterized by its ability to recognize and remember specific antigens, enabling a more potent and rapid response upon subsequent exposures to the same pathogen. This system is essential for long-term protection and is divided into two main types: active and passive immunity. Active immunity involves the body's own immune system producing antibodies in response to a pathogen or vaccine. This process activates immune cells that tailor a response to the specific antigens presented, leading to the development of immunological memory. This memory, comprising memory T-cells and B-cells, ensures a swift response to future infections by the same pathogen, providing long-lasting protection.[133.1] In contrast, passive immunity involves the introduction of antibodies from an external source into the body. While this provides immediate protection against specific illnesses, it does not stimulate the immune system to produce its own antibodies, nor does it create immunological memory. Consequently, passive immunity is temporary and may be less effective in individuals with immunodeficiencies.[130.1] [130.1] [130.1] Understanding the distinct mechanisms and roles of active and passive immunity is crucial for developing effective vaccination strategies and educating the public on the importance of immunization. Both forms of adaptive immunity are vital for the body's defense against infections and diseases, highlighting the need for comprehensive approaches to maintaining health.[134.1]In this section:
Immune Disorders
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune diseases are a category of immune disorders characterized by the immune system's failure to distinguish between self and non-self, leading to the attack on the body's own tissues. This malfunction can result in various conditions, including rheumatoid arthritis, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, and systemic lupus erythematosus (lupus).[152.1] The immune system, which is designed to provide both innate and acquired immunity, becomes dysregulated, resulting in either a weakened immune response or an autoimmune reaction where healthy cells are mistakenly targeted.[154.1] The development of autoimmune diseases is influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Genetic predisposition plays a crucial role, with specific genetic markers, such as certain human leukocyte antigen (HLA) alleles, being associated with increased susceptibility to these disorders.[155.1] Studies indicate that approximately 30% of the clinical variability in diseases like COVID-19 can be attributed to genetic factors, highlighting the significant role of host genetics in the progression of autoimmune conditions.[156.1] Furthermore, polymorphisms in multiple genes have been implicated in conferring either predisposition to or protection from autoimmune diseases, suggesting a complex interplay of genetic factors.[158.1] Research has shown that autoimmune diseases often share familial genetic tendencies, despite their diverse clinical manifestations. This shared genetic basis can lead to specific pathways being involved in multiple autoimmune conditions.[160.1] The National Institutes of Health (NIH) estimates that over 80 autoimmune diseases affect more than 24 million Americans, with common examples including type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis, and systemic lupus erythematosus.[162.1] Despite the known genetic influences, misconceptions about autoimmune diseases persist. One prevalent myth is that there is a cure for these conditions; however, they are complex disorders likely triggered by a combination of environmental and genetic factors, and no definitive cure currently exists.[163.1] To address these misunderstandings, it is essential to enhance patient education and health literacy, ensuring that individuals are informed about the nature of autoimmune diseases and the importance of managing their health.[164.1]In this section:
Applications Of Immunology
Clinical Applications
Immunology is the study of the immune system and is a very important branch of the medical and biological sciences. The immune system protects individuals from infections through various lines of defense. When the immune system does not function properly, it can lead to diseases such as autoimmunity, allergies, and cancer.[186.1] Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for recognizing the immune system's role in health and disease, which can inform the development of therapeutic strategies aimed at treating these conditions. One notable application of immunology is in the field of personalized medicine, particularly for allergy treatment. Personalized medicine has revolutionized the approach to treating allergic conditions by focusing on individual patient characteristics, including genetic and phenotypic traits. This approach allows for tailored therapies that can improve patient outcomes.[198.1] For instance, omalizumab, a monoclonal antibody, has been shown to effectively reduce asthma symptoms in patients with severe allergic asthma, demonstrating the potential of targeted therapies in managing specific subtypes of asthma.[199.1] Furthermore, advancements in immunotherapy have opened new avenues for treating autoimmune diseases. Recent studies have explored the use of cell therapies, such as mesenchymal stromal cells and regulatory T cells, which exhibit immune-regulatory activities beneficial for conditions like rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus.[200.1] These therapies aim to modulate the immune response, offering hope for patients with chronic autoimmune conditions. The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into immunology research has significantly advanced clinical applications. The complexity of the human immune system traditionally required specialized knowledge and years of study to understand. However, recent advancements, including technologies such as AIoMT (Artificial Intelligence of Medical Things), genetic intelligence algorithms, and smart immunological methodologies, have simplified this process.[215.1] These technologies have enabled researchers to conduct numerous AI-related studies in healthcare, focusing on the detection and management of various diseases, including autoimmune diseases, immunological deficiency syndromes, inflammatory diseases, and lymphoproliferative disorders.[214.1] Furthermore, the application of machine learning and deep learning methodologies in immunology has facilitated a more efficient approach to medical image diagnosis, drug discovery, personalized medicine, and clinical trials, ultimately enhancing patient care.[214.1]Research and Future Directions
Recent advancements in immunology have significantly influenced vaccine development, particularly in response to emerging pathogens such as SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19. Vaccination remains the most effective method for preventing COVID-19, yet the rapid evolution of SARS-CoV-2 has led to the emergence of various variants, including Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Omicron, which have reduced vaccine efficacy and resulted in breakthrough infections.[189.1] This situation has prompted a comprehensive examination of the efficacy of existing vaccines against these variants and the exploration of strategies to enhance vaccine effectiveness.[190.1] The development of mRNA vaccines has been a notable advancement in this field, demonstrating significant efficacy against COVID-19 variants. Vaccines such as mRNA-1273 and BNT162 have been shown to induce robust Th1 cell responses, which are crucial for effective immune protection. These vaccines stimulate CD4+ T cells to differentiate into Th1 cells, which secrete cytokines like interleukin 2 (IL-2) and enhance the immune response.[191.1] Additionally, mRNA vaccines promote the activation of follicular helper T cells (Tfh cells), which are essential for generating antigen-specific germinal center B-cell responses, further contributing to the immune defense against SARS-CoV-2.[191.1] Recent advancements in vaccine development have highlighted the importance of both traditional and innovative approaches in addressing emerging infectious diseases. While classic methods, such as inactivated or live attenuated vaccines, remain relevant, the application of molecular techniques in virology has significantly enhanced our understanding of virus biology. This has led to the emergence of various vaccination methods, including replicating, attenuated, and non-replicating virus vector approaches, which have proven to be useful vaccine platforms.[193.1] Additionally, non-viral vaccine technologies, such as viral-like particle and nanoparticle vaccines, as well as DNA and RNA vaccines, are being explored to tackle the challenges posed by new pathogens.[192.1] These developments not only complement traditional vaccine strategies but also offer new avenues for effective responses to current and future health threats. The integration of immunological research into public health policy is increasingly recognized as essential for managing infectious diseases, particularly in light of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has highlighted the necessity for a robust public health infrastructure and an agile response system to combat emerging threats.[194.1] Vaccination programs, guided by immunological research, serve as a cornerstone of public health initiatives globally, aiming to protect communities from a wide range of infectious diseases.[197.1] Future public health strategies will require infectious disease epidemiologists to possess a solid grounding in the biology of infection and the host immune response, as well as training in sophisticated approaches to causal inference and the manipulation of large-scale data sets, including pathogen genome sequences.[195.1] Understanding the factors influencing susceptibility to viral infections, such as the presence of preexisting antibodies and the innate cellular immune response, will be crucial for developing effective vaccines tailored to diverse populations and emerging pathogens.[202.1] As researchers continue to explore the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying immune responses, challenges remain in tailoring vaccines to meet the needs of different populations and in addressing vaccine hesitancy. The selection of appropriate antigens and the use of adjuvants to enhance immune responses are critical components of vaccine design that require ongoing investigation.[201.1] Overall, the future of immunology in vaccine development and public health policy is poised for significant advancements, driven by the lessons learned from recent global health challenges.References
[2] Basic Concepts of Immunology - Unacademy — Basic Concepts of Immunology Discuss about basic concepts of immunology,the immune system , immunity dysfunction , clinical immunology and related topics. Share. Immunology is a discipline of biology and medicine that studies immune systems in all species. Immunology is used in organ transplantation, cancer, rheumatology, virology, bacteriology
[3] Immunology Overview - Medical Microbiology - NCBI Bookshelf — Chapter 1 Immunology Overview. Armond S. Goldman and Bellur S. Prabhakar. General Concepts. Evolution of the Immune System. The immune system consists of factors that provide innate and acquired immunity, and has evolved to become more specific, complex, efficient, and regulated. One of the principal functions of the human immune system is to
[4] An introduction to immunology and immunopathology - PMC — The primary functions of the adaptive immune response are: the recognition of specific “non-self” antigens, distinguishing them from “self” antigens; the generation of pathogen-specific immunologic effector pathways that eliminate specific pathogens or pathogen-infected cells; and the development of an immunologic memory that can quickly eliminate a specific pathogen should subsequent infections occur . Type III hypersensitivity reactions occur when IgG and IgM antibodies bind to soluble proteins (rather than cell surface molecules as in type II hypersensitivity reactions) forming immune complexes that can deposit in tissues, leading to complement activation, inflammation, neutrophil influx and mast cell degranulation.
[5] Outline of immunology - Wikipedia — The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to immunology: . Immunology - study of all aspects of the immune system in all organisms. It deals with the physiological functioning of the immune system in states of both health and disease; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders (autoimmune diseases, hypersensitivities, immune deficiency
[9] The role of the immune system in regulating the microbiota — Role of the Microbiota in Shaping Host Response. The microbiota plays a pivotal role in the organization of the immune system from birth. In recent years, the use of germ-free mice has provided critical evidence towards the essential role of the enteric bacteria on immune function.
[10] Impact of the Microbiome on the Immune System - PMC - PubMed Central (PMC) — Short-chain fatty acids, like butyrate, are a common product of gut microbiota which potentially enhance the antipathogenic function of CD8+ T cells via up-regulation of IFN-γ.53 CD4+ T cells are helper cells that regulate immune responses through the release of cytokines and activation of other immune components. Microbiota have been linked to multiple immune functions, including the production of cytokines, maintenance of homeostasis, T cell production, and regulation of the immune system.75–77 The microbiome is involved in heavy interplay with the immune system and is affected to a great degree by environmental factors through birth and infancy.78 It has also been identified as a potential player in the development of certain immune system components such as myeloid cell derivatives,79 suggesting that the microbiota have various roles in the differentiation and efficacy of immune responses.
[13] The interaction of innate immune and adaptive immune system — The interaction of innate immune and adaptive immune system - PubMed eCollection 2024 Oct. The interaction of innate immune and adaptive immune system 9 Department of Pathogen Biology School of Basic Medicine Tongji Medical College and State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Disease, Huazhong University of Science and Technology Wuhan Hubei China. Following this initial response, adaptive immunity provides highly specific and sustained killing of pathogens via B cells, T cells, and antibodies. This review provides a detailed dissection of the composition and function of the innate and adaptive immune systems, emphasizing their synergistic roles in physiological and pathological contexts, providing new insights into the link between these two forms of immunity.
[14] 12.1: An Overview of Innate and Adaptive Immunity — The downside to the specificity of adaptive immunity is that only a few B-cells and T-cells in the body recognize any one epitope. Early induced innate immunity begins 4 - 96 hours after exposure to an infectious agent and involves the recruitment of defense cells as a result of pathogen-associated molecular patterns or PAMPS binding to pattern-recognition receptors or PRRs. Adaptive (acquired) immunity refers to antigen-specific defense mechanisms that take several days to become protective and are designed to react with and remove a specific antigen. This page titled 12.1: An Overview of Innate and Adaptive Immunity is shared under a CC BY 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gary Kaiser via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform.
[15] Physiology, Immune Response - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf — Adaptive immunity is crucial for protecting the body against viruses, including CD8+ T cells, which kill infected cells, and CD4+ T cells, which serve as the dominant effector cell population in response to many virus infections. B cells: Responsible for humoral immunity, B cells produce antibodies that bind to antigens, neutralizing pathogens or marking them for destruction by other immune cells. Humoral Response: This aspect of adaptive immunity involves B cells and antibody production. Regulatory T cells: Suppress immune responses, maintain tolerance to self-antigens, and prevent autoimmune diseases. Type 2 hypersensitivity reactions (antibody-dependent cytotoxic hypersensitivity): Immune response against the antigens on the cell surface. The immunological studies of innate and adaptive immunity include the assessment of immunoglobulins, B- and T-lymphocyte counts, lymphocyte stimulation assays, quantification of complement system components, and phagocytic activity.
[16] An introduction to immunology and immunopathology - PMC — The primary functions of the adaptive immune response are: the recognition of specific “non-self” antigens, distinguishing them from “self” antigens; the generation of pathogen-specific immunologic effector pathways that eliminate specific pathogens or pathogen-infected cells; and the development of an immunologic memory that can quickly eliminate a specific pathogen should subsequent infections occur . Type III hypersensitivity reactions occur when IgG and IgM antibodies bind to soluble proteins (rather than cell surface molecules as in type II hypersensitivity reactions) forming immune complexes that can deposit in tissues, leading to complement activation, inflammation, neutrophil influx and mast cell degranulation.
[17] The interaction of innate immune and adaptive immune system — The innate immune system serves as a rapid and broad-spectrum defense mechanism. This section delves into the primary functions of the innate immune system, highlighting how it recognizes pathogens, initiates inflammatory responses, and adapts through trained immunity. 2.2.1 Recognition of pathogens 2.2.1 Recognition of pathogens
[34] What Is Herd Immunity? | Infectious Diseases - JAMA Network — Herd immunity may be achieved either through infection and recovery or by vaccination. Vaccination creates immunity without having to contract a disease. Herd immunity also protects those who are unable to be vaccinated, such as newborns and immunocompromised people, because the disease spread within the population is very limited.
[36] Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Vaccination Programs in Preventing ... — The effectiveness of vaccination programs can be evaluated through several key metrics. Disease incidence provides a direct measure of how vaccination reduces the number of new cases in a population. For instance, diseases such as measles and mumps, once common and potentially deadly, have seen dramatic declines in incidence due to widespread
[37] Immunology Milestones Timeline Study Guide | Quizlet — Significant Milestones in Immunology Key Scientists and Dates 1798: Jenner demonstrates smallpox vaccination 1862: Haeckel introduces the concept of phagocytosis 1883-1905: Metchnikoff pioneers the cellular theory of immunity through phagocytosis 1885: Pasteur develops live, attenuated chicken cholera and anthrax vaccines
[39] The History of Immunology - SpringerLink — Immunology begins with Edward Jenner’s discovery that vaccination with cowpox protects against smallpox. That there was an immune response was confirmed by the observations of many scientists that the same disease did not return a second time to a recovered
[41] Principles of vaccine design—Lessons from nature — Modern human vaccine development builds on understanding of the aetiology, epidemiology and pathogenesis of the target infection or disease, as well as the target population . In addition, profound knowledge of immunobiology is necessary to identify the type and quality of immune responses that should be elicited by an effective (i.e. protective and/or therapeutic) vaccine. This review
[44] Vaccine development: Current trends and technologies — Vaccine development: Current trends and technologies - ScienceDirect Search Search ScienceDirect Vaccine development: Current trends and technologies As well as traditional vaccine different methods such as inactivated or live attenuated vaccines, viral vector vaccines, and subunit vaccines, emerging non-viral vaccine technologies, including viral-like particle and nanoparticle vaccines, DNA/RNA vaccines, and rational vaccine design, offer new strategies to address the existing challenges in vaccine development. This review provides a comprehensive assessment of emerging non-viral vaccine production methods and their application in addressing the fundamental and current challenges in vaccine development. Various vaccines were swiftly developed and subjected to rigorous clinical trials. Recent advances in mRNA vaccine technology Vaccine technologies: from whole organisms to rationally designed protein assemblies New vaccine technologies to combat outbreak situations Single-cycle adenovirus vectors in the current vaccine landscape Virus-like particles: flexible platforms for vaccine development About ScienceDirect
[45] Medicine in the 18th century - Encyclopedia Britannica — Even in the 18th century the search for a simple way of healing the sick continued. In Edinburgh the writer and lecturer John Brown expounded his view that there were only two diseases, sthenic (strong) and asthenic (weak), and two treatments, stimulant and sedative; his chief remedies were alcohol and opium.Lively and heated debates took place between his followers, the Brunonians, and the
[46] Common Diseases of the 18th and 19th Century — Smallpox virus was one of the deadliest diseases in the 18 th century. It was likely brought to the colonies by British immigrants or African slaves in the 17 th century, but because colonists were spread out, outbreaks were infrequent. The virus spreads through the air and proved to be deadly since it can take up to two weeks for an affected
[47] Edward Jenner's Influence on Immunity and Louis Pasteur's Introduction ... — Additionally, Jenner's work had a lasting impact on public health and disease prevention. The widespread use of the smallpox vaccine following Jenner's discovery led to the eventual eradication of smallpox, making it the first and only human disease to be eradicated through vaccination.
[48] Edward Jenner's Discovery of Vaccination: Impact and Legacy — Keywords: edward jenner, historical vignette, public health, smallpox, vaccination The methods and insights gained from Jenner’s work have continued to influence vaccine development and public health strategies . The lessons learned from Jenner’s work remain relevant as new vaccines are developed and as public health professionals address emerging challenges, such as vaccine hesitancy and the need for vaccines against newly identified pathogens . A comprehensive literature search was conducted on PubMed using keywords such as "Edward Jenner," "smallpox vaccination," "history of immunization," and "vaccination impact." The search was limited to articles published in peer-reviewed journals. The success of modern vaccines demonstrates the ongoing impact of Jenner’s work on public health.
[64] History of immunology - bionity.com — History of immunology Timeline of immunology: 1798 - First demonsration of vaccination smallpox vaccination (Edward Jenner) 1837 - First description of the. ... between religion and science • Eugenics • Human Genome Project • Darwin Day • History of creationism • History of the creation-evolution controversy
[66] Chapter 1: Introduction and History of the Immunology - Labpedia.net — History of immunology. Immunology is a relatively new branch of the medical sciences. It started as a branch of microbiology, which led to the study of infectious diseases and then the body's response to them. ... Sir Almoth found that antibodies can help in phagocytosis and settled the controversy of humoral and cellular immunity. Immunology
[67] PDF — Summary of the state of immunology at the end of the 19th century By the turn of the century, several paradigms had been established that laid the groundwork for future studies in immunology. The first was based on the "germ theory" of disease (Koch and Pasteur) which held that disease was caused by bacteria. The second paradigm was that
[68] Exploring the History of Immunology — The history of immunology traces back centuries, with early civilizations observing immunity without fully understanding it. In the 19th century, Louis Pasteur advanced immunology further by developing vaccines for rabies and anthrax. While ancient beliefs about disease and immunity were far from today’s scientific understanding, they laid essential foundations for the development of modern immunology. Established to focus on infectious diseases, IDRI aimed to advance vaccine development and immune therapies. Diseases and Immunology Immunology plays a vital role in understanding diseases and managing public health. By exploring infectious diseases and immune-related disorders, immunologists advance our understanding of health. Immunology, like all scientific fields, faces ethical considerations that shape its practices and research. Vaccinations represent a significant advancement in immunology.
[69] A Brief Chronicle of Antibody Research and Technological Advances — Their experiments showed that blood serum from animals with acquired immunity could be used to both cure and prevent infections in other animals. This discovery led to the development of serum therapy, i.e., serotherapy, and introduced the basic concept of antibodies to immunology. The practical application of these discoveries came quickly.
[79] Revolutionizing immunization: a comprehensive review of mRNA vaccine ... — Recent advancements in mRNA vaccine research have significantly improved the stability of mRNA and the efficacy of delivery systems. These developments have paved the way for the use of mRNA vaccine technology in addressing infectious diseases such as HIV, Zika, Ebola fever, Lassa fever, Influenza and RSV viruses (Table 1). Table 1.
[80] Clinical advancements in mRNA vaccines against viral infections — Clinical advancements in mRNA vaccines against viral infections - ScienceDirect During the 1990s, researchers embarked on preclinical investigations for in vitro synthesis of mRNA for different applications such as protein therapies, gene editing and vaccination strategies for addressing cancer and infectious diseases [, , , ]. The success of mRNA COVID-19 vaccines, exemplified by those developed by Moderna and BioNTech/Pfizer has not only been crucial in combating the pandemic but has also prompted advancements in mRNA-based technology for a range of viral infections. Beyond COVID-19, the review explores the extensive efforts made for the development of mRNA vaccines for diverse infections including influenza, respiratory syncytial virus, HIV, cytomegalovirus, Ebola, Zika, Rabies and Nipah viruses. COVID-19 mRNA vaccines mRNA vaccines beyond COVID-19
[81] mRNA-based vaccine technology for HIV - PubMed — Now, several mRNA-based HIV vaccines are undergoing clinical trials to evaluate their safety and efficacy. This review offers an overview of the pathogenesis and treatment of HIV / AIDS, previous efforts of HIV vaccine development and introduces mRNA vaccines as a promising and potential game changing platform for HIV vaccination.
[82] mRNA-based vaccine technology for HIV - PMC - PubMed Central (PMC) — mRNA-based vaccines in general and anti-HIV mRNA-based vaccines in particular have several significant benefits compared with conventional vaccines, in terms of safety, efficacy, production and applications (see Table 3). As limitations, mRNA-based vaccines are based on a relatively new technology and the adverse effects on long term are yet to
[83] mRNA vaccines: Past, present, future - PMC - PubMed Central (PMC) — 4.2. Advantages, challenges, and opportunities for future mRNA vaccine research. As the world is hit every few years with new viral pandemics, the critical need for novel technologies that can provide rapid and adaptable production of safe and effective vaccines is increasing.
[84] The Application and Future Potential of mRNA Vaccines — This breakthrough ability presents new opportunities for creating future mRNA vaccines that are tailored to fight different infectious diseases. Other scientific advances over the last two decades, such as encapsulating the mRNA into fat molecules known as lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) to protect the molecule and enhance its delivery into cells
[102] Immune Mediated Inflammation: Key Insights and Therapeutics — The immune system protects the body from infections and harmful stimuli, but when its regulatory mechanisms fail, it can trigger chronic inflammation. This immune-mediated process contributes to autoimmune disorders, allergies, and some cancers. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for developing targeted therapies.
[103] Immune 'fingerprints' aid diagnosis of complex diseases in Stanford ... — In a study of nearly 600 people — some healthy, others with infections including COVID-19 or autoimmune diseases including lupus and Type 1 diabetes — the algorithm the researchers developed, called Mal-ID for machine learning for immunological diagnosis, was remarkably successful in identifying who had what based only on their B and T cell receptor sequence and structures. To test their theory, the researchers assembled a dataset of over 16 million B cell receptor sequences and over 25 million T cell receptor sequences from 593 people with one of six different immune states: healthy controls, people infected with SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19) or with HIV, people who had recently received an influenza vaccine, and people with lupus or Type 1 diabetes (both autoimmune diseases).
[104] AI Meets Immunology: Reimagining Personalized Medicine — Together, they have developed AI-Cell (Artificial Intelligence-Cell) — a first-of-its-kind tool that mimics how human immune cells respond to RNA- and DNA-based nanomedicines. Their innovation has the potential to revolutionize gene therapy, making it safer and more personalized. Read more from Inside UNC Charlotte.
[120] In brief: The innate and adaptive immune systems — The immune system fights germs on the skin, in the tissues of the body, and in bodily fluids such as blood. It is made up of the innate (general) immune system and the adaptive (specialized) immune system. These two systems work closely together and take on different tasks. The adaptive immune system: Fighting the germs directly If the innate (general) immune system fails to destroy the germs, the adaptive (specialized) immune system takes over.
[121] The interaction of innate immune and adaptive immune system — These components work together to generate a protective response against pathogens (such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites) and abnormal cells (such as tumors and transplanted cells), while recognizing the host organism and limiting damage to itself. ... The innate immune system serves as the first line of defense following pathogen invasion
[122] The interaction of innate immune and adaptive immune system — The interaction of innate immune and adaptive immune system - PubMed eCollection 2024 Oct. The interaction of innate immune and adaptive immune system 9 Department of Pathogen Biology School of Basic Medicine Tongji Medical College and State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Disease, Huazhong University of Science and Technology Wuhan Hubei China. Following this initial response, adaptive immunity provides highly specific and sustained killing of pathogens via B cells, T cells, and antibodies. This review provides a detailed dissection of the composition and function of the innate and adaptive immune systems, emphasizing their synergistic roles in physiological and pathological contexts, providing new insights into the link between these two forms of immunity.
[123] 12.1: An Overview of Innate and Adaptive Immunity — The downside to the specificity of adaptive immunity is that only a few B-cells and T-cells in the body recognize any one epitope. Early induced innate immunity begins 4 - 96 hours after exposure to an infectious agent and involves the recruitment of defense cells as a result of pathogen-associated molecular patterns or PAMPS binding to pattern-recognition receptors or PRRs. Adaptive (acquired) immunity refers to antigen-specific defense mechanisms that take several days to become protective and are designed to react with and remove a specific antigen. This page titled 12.1: An Overview of Innate and Adaptive Immunity is shared under a CC BY 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gary Kaiser via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform.
[124] Principles of innate and adaptive immunity - Immunobiology - NCBI Bookshelf — The inflammatory response increases the flow of lymph containing antigen and antigen-bearing cells into lymphoid tissue, while complement fragments on microbial surfaces and induced changes in cells that have taken up microorganisms provide signals that synergize in activating lymphocytes whose receptors bind to specific microbial antigens. The abilities to recognize all pathogens specifically and to provide enhanced protection against reinfection are the unique features of adaptive immunity, which is based on clonal selection of lymphocytes bearing antigen-specific receptors. If the receptor on a lymphocyte is specific for a ubiquitous self antigen, the cell is eliminated by encountering the antigen early in its development, while survival signals received through the antigen receptor select and maintain a functional lymphocyte repertoire.
[127] Vaccination as a preventative measure contributing to immune fitness — Abstract. The primary goal of vaccination is the prevention of pathogen-specific infection. The indirect consequences may include maintenance of homeostasis through prevention of infection-induced complications; trained immunity that re-programs innate cells to respond more efficiently to later, unrelated threats; slowing or reversing immune senescence by altering the epigenetic clock, and
[129] Trained immunity-inducing vaccines: Harnessing innate memory for ... — The last decade, however, has witnessed a shift in our understanding of vaccine effects with long-term innate immune memory (also termed 'trained immunity' or TRIM) being described as an important biological effect of several vaccines. Trained immunity describes the heightened response of the innate immune system to subsequent heterologous
[130] Active and Passive Immunity - An Overview and its Differences - BYJU'S — A prominent difference between active and passive immunity is that active immunity is developed due to the production of antibodies in one's own body, while passive immunity is developed by antibodies that are produced outside and then introduced into the body. In this article, let us look at more differences between active and passive immunity.
[133] Active vs Passive Immunity - Definition and Differences — Active vs Passive Immunity – Definition and Differences Active and passive immunity are two fundamental types of immune responses that our bodies use to fight off diseases and infections. Active Immunity Active immunity occurs when the body’s immune system produces its own antibodies in response to the presence of a pathogen or a vaccine. There are two broad types of active immunity: Passive Immunity Comparison of Active and Passive Immunity Both active and passive immunity play crucial roles in our body’s defense against diseases. Combining Active and Passive Immunity: Hybrid Approaches Hybrid immunity approaches involve the simultaneous or sequential use of active and passive immunization strategies. This combines the immediate effectiveness of passive immunity with the long-term protection offered by active immunity.
[134] Difference Between Active and Passive Immunity: Definitions ... - Vedantu — Acquiring Immunity is crucial for warding off infections and maintaining overall health. Two significant types of acquired immunity are active and passive. In this article, we will explore the difference between active and passive immunity and learn how these two forms of defence mechanisms play a vital role in keeping our bodies protected.
[152] Overview of the Immune System - Immune Disorders - MSD Manual Consumer ... — If the immune system malfunctions and mistakes self for nonself, it may attack the body's own tissues, causing an autoimmune disorder, such as rheumatoid arthritis, Hashimoto thyroiditis, or systemic lupus erythematosus (lupus). Disorders of the immune system occur when. The body generates an immune response against itself (an autoimmune
[154] Immune System Disorders: Types and Triggers - Verywell Health — Immune system disorders can be characterized by a weakened immune system or autoimmune diseases, in which the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's healthy cells. There are over 100 types of autoimmune diseases and approximately 80% of all people diagnosed with these conditions are female.
[155] Causes and Examples of Autoimmune Diseases Explained — Below are some key factors that contribute to the development of autoimmune diseases: 1. Genetic Factors. Genetic predisposition plays a crucial role in the development of autoimmune diseases. Specific genetic markers, such as certain human leukocyte antigen (HLA) alleles, have been associated with an increased susceptibility to autoimmune
[156] Genetic Predisposition and the Variable Course of Infectious Diseases — For example, approximately 30% of the clinical variability in COVID-19 is attributable to genetic factors of the host . Using four infectious diseases as examples, we describe in this review article how host genetics can influence their course and how genetic insights can be used for treatment or prevention. Basic genetic principles
[158] The role of genetic factors in autoimmune disease ... - PubMed — Studies in both humans and in animal models of specific disorders suggest that polymorphisms of multiple genes are involved in conferring either a predisposition to or protection from autoimmune diseases. Genes encoding polymorphic proteins that regulate immune responses or the rates and extent of m …
[160] The shared and specific mechanism of four autoimmune diseases — These four autoimmune diseases share a familial genetic tendency, while they have different clinical manifestations. In order to understand the shared genetic tendency and specific clinical phenotypes, in our research we found out expression and regulation genes related to these diseases, and analyzed the shared and specific disease-related pathways. Shared genes and GO terms According to the
[162] PDF — The National Institutes of Health (NIH) estimates more than 80 autoimmune diseases affect more than 24 million Americans. What are the most common autoimmune diseases? The NIH notes that the most well-known autoimmune diseases include type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis and systemic lupus erythematosus, as well as rheumatoid arthritis.
[163] 4 Myths about Autoimmune Disease — Myth #1: There is a cure for Autoimmune Disease. Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own healthy cells, tissues, and organs. While the causes are not fully known, these diseases are likely triggered by complex environmental and genetic factors.
[164] Empowering Patients: Promoting Patient Education and Health Literacy — The objectives of this study are 1) the implementation of quality improvement techniques of Plan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA) cycles on patient education in clinical settings; 2) to enhance the delivery of patient education and create awareness amongst the HCPs regarding the importance of patient education and improved health literacy; 3) to verify if patient education handouts have the minimum necessary information that patient should know; 4) to compare patient education handouts from databases integrated in the electronic health record (EHR) with standard patient education database websites like the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website, and MedlinePlus® site to make sure that they have the minimum necessary information; and 5) to educate and encourage HCPs on the use of appropriate patient education articles in the EHR and utilize an electronic patient portal for patient education, help transition the patient education to an electronic form, and increase efficacy and consistent patient education.
[186] What is immunology? | British Society for Immunology — Immunology is the study of the immune system and is a very important branch of the medical and biological sciences. The immune system protects us from infection through various lines of defence. If the immune system is not functioning as it should, it can result in disease, such as autoimmunity, allergy and cancer.
[189] Challenges and Recent Advancements in COVID-19 Vaccines — Abstract. Vaccination is the most effective method for the prevention of COVID-19 caused by SARS-CoV-2, which is still a global epidemic. However, the evolution of SARS-CoV-2 is so rapid that various variants, including the Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Omicron variants, have emerged, lowering the protection rate of vaccines and even resulting in breakthrough infections.
[190] Clinical advancements in mRNA vaccines against viral infections — Over the last decade, mRNA vaccines development has shown significant advancement, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. This comprehensive review examines the efficacy of pivotal vaccines against emerging COVID-19 variants and strategies for enhancing vaccine effectiveness. It also explores th …
[191] COVID-19 vaccine development: milestones, lessons and prospects - Nature — ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 (AZD1222, viral vector vaccine), NVX-CoV2373 (protein subunit vaccine), mRNA-1273(mRNA vaccine), BNT162 (including BNT162b1 and BNT162b2, mRNA vaccine), and other COVID-19-candidate vaccines were reported to induce Th1 cell responses.19,26,27,28 After recognition of the AP-MHC class II complex and T-cell receptor (TCR), CD4+ T cells distributed in peripheral lymphoid organs can differentiate into Th1 cells, which secrete various cytokines, such as interleukin 2 (IL-2), and simultaneously upregulate the expression of related receptors (IL-2R). In addition to T-cell responses, follicular helper T cells (Tfh cells) induced by mRNA vaccines can trigger effective SARS-CoV-2 antigen-specific germinal center B-cell (GC B-cell) responses (Fig. 3).21,22,32 Upon the interaction of T cells and B cells, some activated Th cells move to the lymphatic follicles and then differentiate into Tfh cells.
[192] Vaccine development: Current trends and technologies — Vaccine development: Current trends and technologies - ScienceDirect Search Search ScienceDirect Vaccine development: Current trends and technologies As well as traditional vaccine different methods such as inactivated or live attenuated vaccines, viral vector vaccines, and subunit vaccines, emerging non-viral vaccine technologies, including viral-like particle and nanoparticle vaccines, DNA/RNA vaccines, and rational vaccine design, offer new strategies to address the existing challenges in vaccine development. This review provides a comprehensive assessment of emerging non-viral vaccine production methods and their application in addressing the fundamental and current challenges in vaccine development. Various vaccines were swiftly developed and subjected to rigorous clinical trials. Recent advances in mRNA vaccine technology Vaccine technologies: from whole organisms to rationally designed protein assemblies New vaccine technologies to combat outbreak situations Single-cycle adenovirus vectors in the current vaccine landscape Virus-like particles: flexible platforms for vaccine development About ScienceDirect
[193] Emerging viruses and current strategies for vaccine intervention — While classic approaches to vaccine development are still amenable to emerging viruses, the application of molecular techniques in virology has profoundly influenced our understanding of virus biology, and vaccination methods based on replicating, attenuated and non-replicating virus vector approaches have become useful vaccine platforms.
[194] PDF — contribute to the emergence and spread of infectious diseases. Furthermore, outbreaks of novel viruses, as witnessed with COVID-19, emphasize the necessity of a robust public health infrastructure and an agile response system to combat emerging threats. The impact of infectious diseases on society: Infectious diseases can have devastating
[195] Emerging Challenges and Opportunities in Infectious Disease ... — Integration of modeling with the public health response to epidemics of bovine spongiform encephalopathy and foot-and-mouth disease in the United Kingdom and the severe acute respiratory syndrome epidemic (68–73) has led to expectations for near real-time modeling studies during major outbreaks. The infectious disease epidemiologists of the future will need a solid grounding in the biology of infection and the host immune response, as well as training in the increasingly sophisticated approaches to causal inference; the manipulation and analysis of large-scale data sets, including pathogen genome sequences; and mathematical modeling, together with the behavioral and social determinants of health.
[197] Immunology and public health: The global challenge of infectious diseases. — The role of immunology in infectious disease control: ... The intersection of immunology and public health. Vaccination programs: Immunization is a cornerstone of public health programs globally. Vaccination campaigns, guided by immunological research, aim to protect communities from a range of infectious diseases, from childhood illnesses to
[198] Personalized medicine for allergy treatment: Allergen ... - PubMed — © 2020 EAACI and John Wiley and Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
[199] Personalized Medicine in Allergy - PMC — Several studies on the efficacy and safety of omalizumab showed a reduction in allergens' effect on the airways,17 a better control of asthma symptoms18 and a significant reduction in the number of exacerbations,19 even in subjects poorly responsive to maximal therapies.20 Other studies also showed significant benefits in allergic asthmatic children21 and a significant reduction in systemic corticosteroid dosage in subjects with refractory disease.22 Omalizumab's treatment inclusion criteria for asthmatic patients, adults, and children (6-12 years old) are persistent severe asthma for more than 12 months not adequately controlled with high doses of ICS and (long acting beta 2 agonists (LABAs), evidence of the sensitization to a perennial allergen at by detection of specific IgE or skin tests, incomplete control of respiratory symptoms, high levels of serum IgE, and reduced baseline pulmonary function (FEV1<80%).23 Omalizumab represents the first and only example of a drug dedicated to a specific subtype of asthmatic patients and can be considered the first tile of asthma target therapy's articulated mosaic.
[200] Recent Advances in Cell Therapeutics for Systemic Autoimmune Diseases - PMC — In this review, we summarized definitions and mechanisms of cell therapies using 3 representative cell types (mesenchymal stromal cells [MSCs], Tregs, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells [MDSCs]) with immune-regulatory activities. Although some cell therapies reviewed here have been largely investigated in other medical conditions such as organ transplantation and specific organ-targeted autoimmune diseases including multiple sclerosis (MS) and type I diabetes mellitus (DM), we mainly focused on results of recent preclinical and clinical studies regarding systemic autoimmune diseases, especially those in the rheumatologic field, such as RA, SLE, SSc, and Sjogren’s syndrome (SjS). Despite therapeutic potentials of MDSCs with various immune-regulatory effects on effector immune cells as described above, experimental studies investigating roles of MDSCs in autoimmune diseases have reported contradictory results.
[201] Developing Vaccines: From Antigens to Immune Response Mechanisms — Developing Vaccines: From Antigens to Immune Response Mechanisms - BiologyInsights Developing Vaccines: From Antigens to Immune Response Mechanisms Explore the intricate process of vaccine development, focusing on the journey from antigen selection to eliciting effective immune responses. This article explores key aspects of vaccine development, from selecting appropriate antigens to understanding immune responses. Antigen selection is a foundational step in vaccine development, determining the specific targets the immune system will recognize. Adjuvant formulations enhance the immune response elicited by vaccines. The inclusion of adjuvants can significantly improve the efficacy of vaccines, particularly those containing antigens that might not naturally provoke a strong immune response. This is beneficial for vaccines targeting pathogens that require more than just an antibody response for effective immunity.
[202] The Importance of Cellular Immunity in the Development of Vaccines and ... — For most viral infections, susceptibility is based on several factors, including (1) the presence of preexisting antibodies to the virus and/or the ability of the individual to rapidly mount de novo antibodies to the agent, (2) the innate cellular immune response, principally natural killer (NK) cells, and (3) the phenotype of the susceptible target cells in terms of receptors for viral entry.
[214] A Study of the Recent Trends of Immunology: Key Challenges, Domains ... — The later part of the study presents a statistical analysis of the contributions in AI in the different domains of immunology and an in-depth review of the machine learning and deep learning methodologies and algorithms that can and have been applied in the field of immunology. Due to the advent of technologies such as AIoMT (Artificial Intelligence of Medical Things), genetic intelligence algorithms and approaches, and smart immunological methodologies, fellow researchers have conducted numerous AI-related research works in healthcare to detect various types of diseases such as autoimmune diseases, immunological deficiency syndromes and disorders, inflammatory diseases, lymphoproliferative disorders, etc. In this study, we have emphasized discussing the evolution of AI in healthcare, represented detailed process flows of various health domains such as medical image diagnosis, drug discovery and manufacturing, personalized medicine, clinical trials and data collection, smart records management, etc.
[215] A Study of the Recent Trends of Immunology: Key Challenges ... - MDPI — The human immune system is very complex. Understanding it traditionally required specialized knowledge and expertise along with years of study. However, in recent times, the introduction of technologies such as AIoMT (Artificial Intelligence of Medical Things), genetic intelligence algorithms, smart immunological methodologies, etc., has made this process easier. These technologies can observe