The Consequences of Parental Incarceration for African American Mothers, Children, and Grandparent Caregivers

Abstract

Introduction Some 160 years since slavery was abolished in America, and some 50 years after the progress made during the Civil Rights movement, the language used to describe the status of African Americans remains remarkably unchanged (Feagin, 2010). African Americans continue to be oppressed by a system of racialized formal social control: the American criminal justice system. Perhaps one of the most pervasive problems associated with the discriminatory treatment of African Americans by the criminal justice system is the undeniably catastrophic effect mass incarceration has on individuals and families, particularly women and children, caregivers, (especially grandparents); and Black communities at large. This phenomenon is highlighted by Marc Mauer, in Race to Incarcerate (2006), as incarceration is identified as the predominant reason behind fraying of family bonds the rising number of growing up with a parent in prison, and the disrupted social networks in many communities now threaten the viability of those neighborhoods and the life prospects for the next generation of children (Mauer, 2006, p. xiii). Research studies have shown that African Americans, and especially men, are incarcerated at levels disproportionally higher than they were 25 years ago. In less than 30 years, the incarcerated population in the United has risen dramatically from 300,000 to more than 2.3 million; most of which is due to non-violent drug offenses (Alexander, 2010; Tonry, 2011). This phenomenon is partly the product of drug enforcement efforts that disproportionately concentrate on inner-city illicit drug markets, drawing young African American men into the criminal justice system (Butler, 2010; Miller, 1996). To make matters worse, empirical evidence shows African American men charged with drug related offenses fare worst on a number of sentencing-related factors and are more likely to spend a greater amount of time imprisoned compared to their White counterparts (Bontrager, Bales, & Chiricos, 2005; Caravelis, Chiricos, & Bales, 2011; Huebner & Bynum, 2008; Spohn & Sample, 2008). Ensnarement into the system sets into motion a cyclical arrest-incarceration process which few African Americans manage to escape. Major factors leading to the entrapment of African Americans in the criminal justice system include get tough laws of the 1970s, disparities in sentencing, and mandatory minimum sentences. All of these policies and practices contribute to high rates of mass incarceration that extend well beyond the ramifications of the actual crimes committed (Garland, 2001a; Garland, 2001b). Severe restrictions in post-release housing options, indefinite disenfranchisement, and significant disruption in familial relationships are just a few of these. Existing research in this this area has mainly focused on the experiences of incarcerated parents rather than those of the families, children, and caregivers they leave behind (e.g., Braman, 2002; Foster & Hagan, 2009; Visher, 2013). The primary objective of this paper is to add to this body of knowledge with a discussion of how the incarceration and removal of African American mothers from the family affects both their and, more often than not, grandmothers who care for the while the mother is incarcerated. There are ripple effects that are felt among these families and all family members experience them, from the younger to the elder generations. Only a direct recognition of the nature and scope of this problem can help guide ameliorative research and policy proposals. Review of Literature There is a glaring lack of literature devoted to a thorough discussion of the effects of incarceration on multiple generations within African American families, and most of this work is focused on the effect imprisonment has had on the relationships between African American fathers and their (e. …