Exposure to Online Hate in Four Nations: A Cross-National Consideration

TLDR

Online hate material is abundant, yet exposure levels vary widely among individuals. The study aims to identify who is exposed to online hate and to test hypotheses explaining cross‑national differences. Researchers sampled youth and young adults from four countries to assess exposure patterns. Routine activity theory explains individual exposure, but significant cross‑national variation remains, with anti‑hate‑speech laws acting as a protective factor.

Abstract

There is a considerable amount of hate material online, but the degree to which individuals are exposed to these materials vary. Using samples of youth and young adults from four countries, we investigate who is exposed to hate materials. We find support for using routine activity theory to understand exposure at the individual level; however, there is significant cross-national variation in exposure after accounting for individual-level factors. We consider two plausible hypotheses that could account for this cross-national variation. The data best fit the hypothesis that anti–hate speech laws may provide a source of guardianship against exposure.