20:T4bc,Chalkbrood and stonebrood are two fungal diseases associated with honey bee brood. Chalkbrood, caused by Ascosphaera apis, is a common and widespread disease that can result in severe reduction of emerging worker bees and thus overall colony productivity. Stonebrood is caused by Aspergillus spp. that are rarely observed, so the impact on colony health is not very well understood. A major concern with the presence of Aspergillus in honey bees is the production of airborne conidia, which can lead to allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis, pulmonary aspergilloma, or even invasive aspergillosis in lung tissues upon inhalation by humans. In the current chapter we describe the honey bee disease symptoms of these fungal pathogens. In addition, we provide research methodologies and protocols for isolating and culturing, in vivo and in vitro assays that are commonly used to study these host pathogen interactions. We give guidelines on the preferred methods used in current research and the application of molecular techniques. We have added photographs, drawings and illustrations to assist bee-extension personnel and bee scientists in the control of these two diseases.21:T554,The interaction of pathogens with plants leads to a disruption in cellular homeostasis, often leading to cell death, in both compatible and incompatible relationships. The mechanistic basis of this cellular disruption and consequent death is complex and poorly characterized, but it is established that host responses to pathogens are dependent on gene expression, involve signal transduction, and require energy. Recent data suggest that in animals, a genetically regulated, signal transduction-dependent programmed cell death process, commonly referred to as apoptosis, is conserved over a wide range of phyla. The basic function of apoptosis is to direct the selective elimination of certain cells during development, but it also is a master template that is involved in host responses to many pathogens. Programmed cell death in plants, while widely observed, has not been studied extensively at either the biochemical or genetic level. Current data suggest that activation or suppression of programmed cell death may underlie diseases in plants as it does in animals. This review describes some of the fundamental characteristics of apoptosis in animals and points to a number of connections to programmed cell death in plants that may lead to both a better understanding of disease processes and novel strategies for engineering disease resistance in plants.22:T78e,

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