Stimulation of extraocular muscle fibroblasts by cytokines and hypoxia: possible role in thyroid‐associated ophthalmopathy

Abstract

Extraocular muscle fibroblasts respond differently from dermal fibroblasts following cytokine stimulation, which may explain in part the anatomical localization of ophthalmopathy. Hypoxia stimulates fibroblasts and this could contribute, as an enhancing factor, to the adverse effects of smoking on thyroid eye disease.