Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model

TLDR

Fear‑appeal research is heterogeneous, with current theories explaining linear effects but not the observed boomerang or curvilinear outcomes. This study introduces the Extended Parallel Process Model to explain why fear appeals fail and to guide future research with specific propositions. The EPPM extends Leventhal’s danger‑control/fear‑control framework by re‑incorporating fear as central and formalizing the threat‑efficacy relationship.

Abstract

The fear appeal literature is diverse and inconsistent. Existing fear appeal theories explain the positive linear results occurring in many studies, but are unable to explain the boomerang or curvilinear results occurring in other studies. The present work advances a theory integrating previous theoretical perspectives (i.e., Janis, 1967; Leventhal, 1970; Rogers, 1975, 1983) that is based on Leventhal's (1970) danger control/fear control framework. The proposed fear appeal theory, called the Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM), expands on previous approaches in three ways: (a) by explaining why fear appeals fail; (b) by re‐incorporating fear as a central variable; and (c) by specifying the relationship between threat and efficacy in propositional forms. Specific propositions are given to guide future research.