Atomic Theory of Liquid Helium Near Absolute Zero

Abstract

The properties of liquid helium at very low temperatures (below 0.5\ifmmode^\circ\else\textdegree\fi{}K) are discussed from the atomic point of view. It is argued that the lowest states are compressional waves (phonons). Long-range motions which leave density unaltered (stirrings) are impossible for Bose statistics since they simply permute the atoms. Motions on an atomic scale are possible, but require a minimum energy of excitation. Therefore at low temperature the specific heat varies as ${T}^{3}$ and the flow resistance of the fluid is small. The arguments are entirely qualitative---no calculation of the energy of excitation nor of the low-temperature viscosity is given. In an appendix an expression, previously given, for the partition function is modified to include the effects of phonons.