What does the commonly used DCF test for oxidative stress really show?

Abstract

H(2)DCF-DA (dihydrodichlorofluorescein diacetate) is widely used to evaluate 'cellular oxidative stress'. After passing through the plasma membrane, this lipophilic and non-fluorescent compound is de-esterified to a hydrophilic alcohol [H(2)DCF (dihydrodichlorofluorescein)] that may be oxidized to fluorescent DCF (2',7'-dichlorofluorescein) by a process usually considered to involve ROS (reactive oxygen species). It is, however, not always recognized that, being a hydrophilic molecule, H(2)DCF does not cross membranes, except for the outer fenestrated mitochondrial ones. It is also not generally realized that oxidation of H(2)DCF is dependent either on Fenton-type reactions or on unspecific enzymatic oxidation by cytochrome c, for neither superoxide, nor H(2)O(2), directly oxidizes H(2)DCF. Consequently, oxidation of H(2)DCF requires the presence of either cytochrome c or of both redox-active transition metals and H(2)O(2). Redox-active metals exist mainly within lysosomes, whereas cytochrome c resides bound to the outer side of the inner mitochondrial membrane. Following exposure to H(2)DCF-DA, weak mitochondrial fluorescence was found in both the oxidation-resistant ARPE-19 cells and the much more sensitive J774 cells. This fluorescence was only marginally enhanced following short exposure to H(2)O(2), showing that by itself it is unable to oxidize H(2)DCF. Cells that were either exposed to the lysosomotropic detergent MSDH (O-methylserine dodecylamide hydrochloride), exposed to prolonged oxidative stress, or spontaneously apoptotic showed lysosomal permeabilization and strong DCF-induced fluorescence. The results suggest that DCF-dependent fluorescence largely reflects relocation to the cytosol of lysosomal iron and/or mitochondrial cytochrome c.