Table of Contents
Overview
Definition of Morphogenesis
Morphogenesis, derived from the Greek words "morphê" meaning shape and "genesis" meaning creation, is a fundamental aspect of developmental biology, alongside cell growth and cellular differentiation. It encompasses the processes that determine the shapes of tissues, organs, and entire organisms, as well as the spatial arrangement of various specialized cell types within these structures.[2.1] The term generally refers to the mechanisms by which order is established in a developing organism, as differentiated cells meticulously organize into tissues, organs, organ systems, and ultimately the organism as a whole.[3.1] This shaping process is guided by the genetic "blueprint" of the organism and influenced by environmental conditions, leading to the differentiation of cells, tissues, and organs.[4.1] Morphogenesis can be viewed as the architecture of development, involving the movement and arrangement of parts within a developing system to achieve specific shapes and relative positions in space.[5.1] Current research in this field emphasizes the importance of physical cues that regulate cell function and tissue morphogenesis, highlighting the need to consider the physical characteristics of biomaterials in tissue engineering applications.[10.1]Importance in Developmental Biology
Morphogenesis is a cornerstone of developmental biology, crucial for the formation and organization of tissues and organs. It focuses on how cells alter in number, size, shape, and movement, contributing to the development of complex biological structures.[18.1] Initially conceptualized by embryologists, morphogenesis was examined through positional information, suggesting that morphogenetic substances and mechanical properties can differentially influence gene expression to guide tissue formation.[27.1] In tissue engineering, morphogenetic principles are essential for creating scaffolds that support tissue form and promote remodeling, emulating natural developmental processes.[7.1] Natural biomaterials are particularly beneficial due to their microstructure interconnectivity and bioactivity, resembling the extracellular matrix (ECM) and facilitating cellular functions like infiltration, adhesion, and differentiation.[8.1] Developmental tissue engineering seeks to replicate embryonic morphogenetic processes to achieve tissues and organs with appropriate biomorphology and functionality.[9.1] The interaction of specific genes and their regulatory networks is pivotal in morphogenesis. Gene regulatory networks (GRNs) control limb field positioning and axis polarity, essential for anatomical development.[14.1] Disruptions in these pathways can lead to developmental anomalies, highlighting the importance of understanding genetic interactions.[13.1] Morphogenesis also has significant evolutionary implications, influencing the evolutionary pathways of organisms. Adaptations like the dentary-squamosal jaw joint in mammals demonstrate how morphogenetic changes can lead to evolutionary transformations.[25.1] The study of morphogenesis enhances our understanding of evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo), illustrating how morphogenetic processes impact evolutionary adaptations across species.[27.1] Thus, morphogenesis is fundamental not only to developmental biology but also to understanding the evolution of form and function in living organisms.In this section:
History
Early Theories and Concepts
Morphogenesis, the process by which living organisms develop their form and structure, has its roots in ancient philosophical thought, particularly in the works of Aristotle. In the 4th century BC, Aristotle was the first to describe morphogenesis, laying the groundwork for biology and embryology. His critiques of Plato's theory of forms emphasized the importance of tangible substances and their properties, which influenced later scientific and philosophical discourse on the nature of living organisms.[46.1] Aristotle introduced the concept of hylomorphism, positing that all substances consist of two principles: form and matter. Form represents the specific organization of matter that defines an object's essential nature.[47.1] This distinction between form and matter was crucial for understanding changes in the natural world, as Aristotle sought to explain how substances come into existence without invoking the idea of creation from nothing.[48.1] His framework provided a foundation for later biological theories, particularly regarding the principles of individuation, where matter is seen as the distinguishing factor between different entities.[48.1] The transition from Aristotelian philosophy to a mechanistic worldview during the Scientific Revolution marked a significant shift in the understanding of morphogenesis. This new perspective, emerging from the Renaissance and Reformation, emphasized abstract reasoning and a quantitative view of nature, viewing it as a machine rather than an organism.[70.1] The mechanistic philosophy proposed that all life phenomena could be explained through physical and chemical laws, contrasting with the vitalist perspective that attributed life to a soul or vital force.[73.1] This shift led to a focus on empirical methods and specific theories, moving away from the Aristotelian search for final causes.[71.1] As the understanding of morphogenesis evolved, the introduction of the concept of morphogens by Alan Turing further advanced the field. Turing's models, based on reaction-diffusion equations, provided a mathematical framework for predicting morphogenetic processes, highlighting the role of chemical regulation in development.[65.1] This mathematical approach, alongside the mechanistic perspective, has significantly shaped contemporary developmental biology, allowing for a deeper understanding of how complex structures form in living organisms.[67.1]Key Figures in Morphogenesis Research
D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson, a Scottish biologist, significantly influenced the field of morphogenesis through his groundbreaking work, "On Growth and Form," published in 1917. Thompson's approach challenged traditional views of biology by emphasizing the role of physical forces and mathematical principles in shaping biological forms. He proposed that biological shapes and diversity could be understood as geometric forms governed by physical laws, rather than as random variations. This perspective was informed by the ideas of earlier thinkers such as Galileo and Goethe, and it established a new framework for studying biological morphology.[59.1] Thompson's work laid the foundation for a mathematical approach to biology, suggesting that the geometry of biological systems is crucial for understanding their development and evolution. He argued that biological evolution is influenced not only by genetic mutations and natural selection but also by the geometrical context in which biochemical reactions occur. This perspective highlights the importance of environmental factors in shaping the morphology of organisms during their ontogeny.[57.1] His contributions have been recognized as a landmark in mathematical biology, inspiring further research into the mathematical modeling of biological forms.[59.1] Another key figure in the history of morphogenesis is Alan Turing, who introduced the concept of reaction-diffusion systems in his 1952 work, "The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis." Turing's model describes how patterns can emerge in biological systems through the interaction of chemical substances that diffuse and react with one another. This mechanism provides a theoretical framework for understanding complex pattern formation in developing organisms, such as the stripes on a zebra or the spots on a leopard.[74.1] Turing's insights have been foundational in the study of developmental biology, allowing researchers to predict and manipulate patterns in various biological contexts.[74.1] Together, the contributions of Thompson and Turing have shaped our understanding of morphogenesis, providing essential insights into the interplay between physical forces, chemical processes, and biological development. Their work continues to influence contemporary research in the field, as scientists explore the mathematical and physical principles underlying the formation of complex biological structures.[74.1]Mechanisms Of Morphogenesis
Cellular Processes Involved
Morphogenesis involves a series of intricate cellular processes that are essential for the proper formation of tissues and organs within an organism. These processes include cell division, differentiation, migration, apoptosis, and the activation of various signaling pathways, all of which work in concert to ensure that cells are organized into the correct structures at the appropriate times during development.[80.1] The extracellular matrix (ECM) plays a pivotal role in morphogenesis by facilitating the organization of cells into tissues and guiding their movements. It provides a scaffold that supports cellular architecture and influences cellular behavior, thereby contributing to the correct positioning of tissues and organs within the body.[80.1] Additionally, morphogenesis is influenced by bioelectrical signals, such as membrane potential (Vmem), which integrate with molecular signaling networks to regulate gene expression and cellular states. This interplay is crucial for maintaining order and coordination at the organ level, highlighting the importance of understanding bioelectricity in the context of developmental processes.[79.1] Environmental factors also significantly impact morphogenetic processes. Variations in developmental temperature, egg or embryo size, and chemical environments can alter cellular processes and gene expression, leading to changes in tissue development and potentially resulting in congenital anomalies.[84.1] These environmental influences underscore the complexity of morphogenesis and its susceptibility to external conditions, which can affect the mechanics of development across different organisms.[84.1]Role of Cell Adhesion and Signaling
Role of Cell Adhesion and Signaling Cell adhesion and signaling are pivotal in morphogenesis, influencing cellular behaviors such as proliferation, migration, differentiation, and apoptosis, which are essential for tissue formation during embryonic development. Cell-cell signals regulate gene expression necessary for cellular shape changes and movement, coordinating behaviors required for tissue formation.[89.1] Signaling pathways like Wnt and Hedgehog are crucial for cell differentiation and tissue patterning. Mutations in Wnt components can cause severe developmental defects, underscoring its importance in morphogenesis.[94.1] The Notch signaling pathway interacts with cell polarity pathways regulated by Par proteins, balancing cell proliferation and differentiation.[93.1] The interplay between biochemical signaling and mechanical forces is significant in morphogenesis. While ligand-based signaling elicits cellular responses, mechanical forces shape tissues.[92.1] For instance, the actomyosin cytoskeleton can redistribute in response to mechanical stresses, supporting adherens junctions and promoting cellular contraction or elongation.[98.1] Mechanical stresses can also activate pathways like Rho GTPases, inducing transcription factors such as Twist1, which influence processes like epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and heart valve formation.[99.1] Cell adhesion to the extracellular matrix (ECM) is critical for transmitting mechanical forces across tissues during morphogenesis. This coupling at focal adhesions facilitates cellular reorganization and movement and serves as a biochemical signal through integrin receptors.[96.1] The coordination of these interactions and stresses is essential for regulating gene expression and ensuring proper morphogenetic outcomes.[95.1]Types Of Morphogenesis
Epithelial vs. Mesenchymal Morphogenesis
Epithelial and mesenchymal morphogenesis represent two distinct yet interconnected processes that contribute to the overall development of tissues and organs in multicellular organisms. Epithelial morphogenesis is characterized by the organization and shaping of epithelial tissues, which are composed of tightly packed cells that form protective barriers and are involved in absorption and secretion. This process is heavily influenced by signaling pathways such as Wnt, Shh, Notch, and BMP, which mediate the interactions between epithelial and mesenchymal cells during development. For instance, the Wnt pathway plays a crucial role in hair follicle induction, while Shh is involved in later stages of differentiation.[131.1] In contrast, mesenchymal morphogenesis involves the development of mesenchymal tissues, which are typically more loosely organized and can differentiate into various cell types, including fibroblasts, adipocytes, and osteoblasts. The mechanical properties of the extracellular matrix (ECM) are particularly significant in mesenchymal morphogenesis, as they influence cell behavior, including adhesion, migration, and differentiation. Cells can generate forces that deform the tissue or alter its mechanical properties, thereby affecting how mesenchymal tissues respond to external stimuli.[139.1] Both epithelial and mesenchymal morphogenesis are regulated by the ECM, which serves as a scaffold that provides structural support and biochemical cues necessary for tissue development. The composition and stiffness of the ECM can significantly impact cell fate decisions and the overall morphogenetic processes.[143.1] For example, variations in ECM rigidity can lead to different developmental outcomes, highlighting the importance of the ECM in guiding morphogenetic events.[143.1] Understanding the interplay between epithelial and mesenchymal morphogenesis, along with the role of signaling pathways and the ECM, is essential for elucidating the mechanisms underlying normal development and the potential causes of developmental abnormalities.Examples in Plant and Animal Development
Morphogenesis plays a crucial role in the development of both plants and animals, influencing the formation of tissues, organs, and overall organismal structure. In animals, morphogenetic processes are characterized by a series of well-coordinated events, including cell division, differentiation, migration, and apoptosis, which ensure that cells are organized into tissues and organs in the correct positions and with the appropriate structures.[123.1] For instance, the study of morphogenesis in bacteria has revealed insights into evolutionary transitions, such as the role of SpmX in stalk synthesis, which could not be inferred from its function in the well-studied model organism Caulobacter crescentus, highlighting the importance of examining closely related species to understand morphogenetic capabilities.[155.1] In the context of plant development, morphogenesis is often more plastic compared to animals, allowing for greater adaptability in response to environmental conditions.[122.1] The principles of morphogenesis in plants can be observed in phenomena such as phyllotaxis, where the arrangement of leaves around a stem follows specific patterns dictated by growth rates in different directions, as described by D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson.[124.1] This concept is further supported by Alan Turing's work, which proposed a mechanism involving the diffusion of chemical signals to establish developmental patterns, a theory that has been validated through subsequent observations in various organisms.[124.1] Moreover, the extracellular matrix (ECM) plays a vital role in both plant and animal morphogenesis by organizing cells into tissues and guiding their movement during development.[123.1] The ECM's influence is evident in how it facilitates the formation of different tissue types and ensures that they are positioned correctly within the organism. Understanding these processes is essential for comprehending the broader implications of morphogenesis in evolutionary biology, as it sheds light on how new cell-based materials with unique morphogenetic capabilities may have contributed to major transitions in multicellular evolution.[158.1]Recent Advancements
Advances in Genetic and Epigenetic Understanding
Recent advancements in the understanding of genetic and epigenetic factors influencing craniofacial morphogenesis have significantly enhanced the field of developmental biology. Research has shown that craniofacial development is intricately coordinated by regulatory genes and signaling pathways, particularly homeobox (HOX) and distal-less (DLX) genes, which establish spatial identity within craniofacial structures.[189.1] These genetic regulators play a crucial role in directing cellular behavior and tissue interactions during morphogenesis. Moreover, the impact of specific genetic mutations on craniofacial development has been a focal point of recent studies. For instance, hypomorphic alleles can reveal functions in craniofacial morphogenesis for gene products, where total loss of function alleles may lead to developmental failures prior to craniofacial formation.[169.1] This is exemplified in conditions such as Treacher Collins syndrome, where mutations in the TCOF1 gene can result in varying degrees of craniofacial anomalies, highlighting the importance of genetic variation in phenotypic outcomes.[172.1] Additionally, the de novo generation of syndromes with nonspecific craniofacial morphology has provided insights into the genetic etiology of craniofacial variation, allowing researchers to identify specific mutations that may be functionally responsible for craniofacial traits.[170.1] The interplay of diverse cell types, particularly cranial neural crest cells (CNCCs), is also critical, as these cells exhibit significant evolutionary plasticity and contribute to the complexity of craniofacial structures.[187.1] Advancements in genetic screening technologies have the potential to improve early diagnosis and intervention strategies for congenital anomalies. Family studies and linkage analysis have been foundational in identifying genes associated with atypical craniofacial development, although there remains a need for further research into the three-dimensional differences in facial morphology between affected and unaffected individuals.[188.1] As the understanding of genetic and environmental contributions to facial morphological variation continues to evolve, it is anticipated that future studies will enhance the predictive capabilities regarding craniofacial anomalies and inform clinical practices.[188.1]Role of Mechanical Forces in Morphogenesis
Mechanical forces play a crucial role in the process of morphogenesis, influencing the shape and structure of developing organisms. Epithelial morphogenesis, for instance, is guided by mechanical forces and biochemical signals that vary in both space and time, highlighting the dynamic interplay between these factors during development.[195.1] Understanding morphogenesis necessitates real-time monitoring of these rapid cellular processes, as many morphogenetic events are driven by such forces.[194.1] Recent advancements in live imaging techniques have significantly enhanced our ability to study these mechanical influences. These techniques allow researchers to observe morphogenetic mechanisms that may be overlooked in static snapshots, thereby providing insights into the intricate dynamics of cellular movements and rearrangements.[197.1] The integration of quantitative and automated investigations into morphogenetic processes has opened avenues for high-content and high-throughput strategies, further elucidating the role of mechanical forces in shaping tissues and organs.[196.1] Moreover, the development of new imaging methods capable of recording morphogenesis at various temporal and spatial scales—from seconds to days and from nanometers to millimeters—has the potential to unlock deeper understanding of the mechanical aspects of morphogenesis.[199.1] To fully harness these advancements, it is essential to pair them with innovative computational approaches and physical models that can interpret the complex data generated.[198.1] This synergy between imaging and modeling is vital for reverse-engineering morphogenesis across different organ systems and for achieving real-time control of complex multicellular systems.[198.1]Applications And Implications
Implications in Regenerative Medicine
Regenerative medicine is significantly influenced by the principles of morphogenesis, particularly through the emerging field of synthetic morphogenesis. This discipline integrates synthetic biology and bioengineering to direct cellular self-organization and tissue formation, which is crucial for developing complex tissues and organs.[221.1] The ability to program cellular behavior allows for the in vitro reconstruction of morphogenetic processes, providing novel insights into developmental biology and enhancing regenerative medicine practices.[221.1] One of the primary applications of morphogenesis in regenerative medicine is the engineering of tissues and organs. Tissue engineering (TE) combines cells, engineering methods, and materials with suitable biochemical and physicochemical factors to reconstruct damaged or diseased organs and tissues.[220.1] Advances in scaffold techniques, including 3D printing, have facilitated the creation of biomaterial scaffolds that mimic the mechanical properties of natural tissues, thereby improving cell and engineered tissue structure and function.[220.1] However, challenges remain, particularly in transferring living cells from culture conditions into the human body, which is a significant obstacle for clinical applications.[220.1] Moreover, the integration of mechanical and biochemical signaling during morphogenesis has been shown to affect various outcomes, including tissue growth and cellular differentiation.[217.1] Understanding how mechanical forces influence tissue morphogenesis can lead to breakthroughs in developing more effective regenerative therapies.[216.1] For instance, the application of mechanical forces can enhance the differentiation of stem cells and improve the overall functionality of engineered tissues.[219.1] As the field of regenerative medicine continues to evolve, synthetic morphogenesis is expected to play a pivotal role in overcoming existing challenges. The development of synthetic gene networks offers programmable control over differentiation and cell-fate decisions, which could revolutionize how complex tissues are engineered.[223.1] However, the successful translation of these concepts from laboratory settings to clinical applications will require addressing the difficulties associated with recreating signaling mechanisms and ensuring the functional integration of engineered tissues within the body.[223.1]In this section:
Challenges And Future Directions
Unanswered Questions in Morphogenesis
One of the pivotal challenges in morphogenesis research is the integration of chemical and mechanical mechanisms to deepen our understanding of morphogenetic processes at both intracellular and multicellular levels. This integration is essential for unraveling the complexity of morphogenesis, which encompasses dynamic processes such as cell movements and interactions across various spatial and temporal scales.[243.1] The influence of environmental variability and organismal differences raises fundamental questions about the role of mechanical processes in tissue movement and deformation. Investigating how these mechanical factors contribute to phenotypic variation remains a critical area of inquiry.[244.1] Climate change further complicates morphogenesis by inducing rapid morphological changes, suggesting selective pressures akin to those shaping ecogeographic patterns. This prompts questions about the specific morphogenetic mechanisms responsible for trait variations in response to climatic shifts.[247.1] Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for predicting how organisms adapt to changing environments.[246.1] Anthropogenic habitat alterations also pose significant challenges, contributing to biodiversity loss and functional homogenization of communities. This complicates our understanding of how habitat degradation influences morphogenetic processes and species assemblages.[249.1] The mechanisms by which habitat changes affect species fitness and community dynamics, including predator-prey relationships, remain inadequately understood.[250.1] Addressing these unanswered questions is vital for advancing morphogenesis research and informing conservation strategies amidst ongoing environmental changes.Emerging Technologies in Morphogenesis Research
Recent advancements in technology are significantly shaping the future of morphogenesis research, particularly through the integration of live-imaging techniques and computational analysis. The development of live-imaging technologies, such as lightsheet microscopy, has revolutionized the ability to monitor morphogenetic processes in real-time, allowing researchers to capture dynamic cellular behaviors and interactions at unprecedented temporal and spatial resolutions.[262.1] These techniques facilitate the observation of intricate cellular dynamics, which are essential for understanding the mechanisms underlying tissue development and organization.[260.1] Moreover, the application of fluorescent biosensors and spatiotemporal perturbation approaches enhances the capability to manipulate and analyze morphogenetic processes as they unfold.[258.1] This integration of advanced imaging with computational data analysis is crucial for deciphering the complex interplay between mechanical forces and biological signaling pathways that govern tissue morphogenesis.[252.1] For instance, mechanical forces generated by cellular structures can induce tissue-wide movements and influence cell differentiation and migration, which are vital for the formation of specialized organs.[253.1] In addition to imaging technologies, the emergence of CRISPR/Cas9-based genomic editing techniques has democratized genetic analysis in developmental biology, allowing for more precise investigations into patterning and morphogenetic processes.[261.1] This genomic approach, combined with high-throughput sequencing technologies, enables researchers to study genetic and plastic responses to environmental changes, thereby enhancing our understanding of how morphogenetic processes adapt over time.[268.1] As the field progresses, the integration of these emerging technologies will not only advance our understanding of morphogenesis but also inform the development of new biomaterials and scaffolds for tissue engineering applications. The mechanical properties of tissues are critical in this context, as they influence the design of biomaterials that can effectively support tissue repair and regeneration.[265.1] However, challenges remain in translating these findings into practical applications, particularly in convincing clinical practitioners of the efficacy of new tissue engineering technologies.[266.1] Overall, the future of morphogenesis research is poised for significant breakthroughs driven by these innovative technological advancements.References
[2] Morphogenesis - bionity.com — Morphogenesis (from the Greek morphê shape and genesis creation) is one of three fundamental aspects of developmental biology along with the control of cell growth and cellular differentiation. Morphogenesis is concerned with the shapes of tissues, organs and entire organisms and the positions of the various specialized cell types.
[3] Morphogenesis | Embryo Project Encyclopedia — The term morphogenesis generally refers to the processes by which order is created in the developing organism. This order is achieved as differentiated cells carefully organize into tissues, organs, organ systems, and ultimately the organism as a whole. Questions centered on morphogenesis have aimed to uncover the mechanisms responsible for this organization, and developmental biology
[4] Morphogenesis | Definition, Types, & Facts | Britannica — Morphogenesis, the shaping of an organism by embryological processes of differentiation of cells, tissues, and organs and the development of organ systems according to the genetic "blueprint" of the potential organism and environmental conditions. Plant morphogenesis is brought about chiefly
[5] Biological development - Morphogenesis, Cell Differentiation, Pattern ... — Biological development - Morphogenesis, Cell Differentiation, Pattern Formation: As was pointed out earlier, morphogenesis refers to all those processes by which parts of a developing system come to have a definite shape or to occupy particular relative positions in space. It may be regarded as the architecture of development. Morphogenetic processes involve the movement of parts of the
[7] Bone Tissue Engineering: Recent Advances and Challenges — On a broader scale, for successful bone tissue engineering, it is critical to develop a scaffold that is inspired by the natural processes of developmental biology and promotes tissue remodeling, rather than simply supporting final tissue form and function.
[8] Fabrication, applications and challenges of natural biomaterials in ... — Natural biomaterials are extensively used in tissue engineering due to their microstructure interconnectivity and inherent bioactivity which mimics of natural extracellular matrix (ECM), supporting cell infiltration, adhesion, differentiation, transportation of oxygen and nutrient, finally restoring the structure and function of defective tissues or organs. Microstructure, mechanical
[9] Scaffold-based developmental tissue engineering strategies for ... — Developmental TE has emerged as a novel TE paradigm to obtain tissues and organs with correct biomorphology and biofunctionality by mimicking the morphogenetic processes leading to the tissue/organ generation in the embryo.
[10] Rational design of hydrogels for tissue engineering: Impact of physical ... — Current research efforts focus on physical cues regulating cell function and tissue morphogenesis. Therefore, the physical characteristics of biomaterials used in tissue-engineering applications should no longer be neglected with respect to their biological effects , , . The subsequent chapters are to illustrate the impact of substrate
[13] Encoding anatomy: Developmental gene regulatory networks and morphogenesis — The specialized properties of embryonic cells and tissues that drive morphogenesis, like other specialized properties of cells, arise as a consequence of differential gene expression. Recently, gene regulatory networks (GRNs) have proven to be powerful conceptual and experimental tools for analyzing the genetic control and evolution of
[14] Dynamic and self-regulatory interactions among gene regulatory networks ... — The first focus of this review are the gene regulatory networks (GRNs) and interactions that control the positioning of the fore- and hindlimb fields along the primary body axis, establish the initial axis polarity and control the precise positioning of the signaling centers. ... Setting the stage: Molecular control of the limb field positions
[18] Morphogenesis - Mahadevan Natural Philosophy - Harvard University — Morphogenesis is one of the grand challenges in biology. Shape arises because cells change in number, size, shape, and movement; understanding how this actually happens and how it is controlled is a natural goal. ... For example, inspired by observations, we provided a theoretical basis for the evolution of multicellular tissue organization
[25] Morphogenesis and Evolution - Oxford Academic — An example would be the origin of the dentary-squamosal jaw joint in mammals, or the evolution of oligosyndactyly in horses. There are two possible types of mechanisms. First, large-scale reorganizations might occur as the result of accumulation of smaller scale phenotypic changes caused solely by late-stage morphogenetic processes.
[27] Morphogenesis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics — Since its inception by early embryologists (Wolpert, 1969, 2011), morphogenesis has been routinely approached in terms of positional information: the hypothesis that a pattern of a morphogenetic substance (i.e. regulator of gene expression) or property (i.e. mechanical stress) serves to differentially alter gene expression in a field of cells, ultimately acting as an instructive signal to induce properly proportioned tissues and anatomical forms. Given the demonstrated roles of Vmem in morphogenesis, it is apparent that a deep understanding of biological pattern formation in development, regeneration, and disease requires a solid comprehension of how bioelectrical signals such as Vmem integrate with molecular signaling networks to control single cell state, and what unique properties bioelectricity adds to transport phenomena in gap junction-coupled cell networks to provide coordination and order at the organ level.
[46] Aristotle's View of the World: Between Substance and Change — Aristotle critiqued Plato's theory of forms, focusing instead on the tangible world's substances and their properties. His distinction between substance and accidents, and his theory of act and potency, offer insights into change and permanence, paving the way for later scientific and philosophical thought. Aristotle's four causes further explain how and why things exist, providing a
[47] Exploring Aristotle Theory of Forms | AncientPedia — Aristotle had his own take on forms and matter, which he called hylomorphism. In a nutshell, hylomorphism explains that all actual things or substances are made up of two principles: form and matter. Form refers to the specific configuration or organization of matter that gives an object its essential nature and identity.
[48] Form vs. Matter - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy — Aristotle introduces matter and form, in the Physics, to account for changes in the natural world, where he is particularly interested in explaining how substances come into existence even though, as he maintains, there is no generation ex nihilo, that is that nothing comes from nothing. Those who wish to avoid attributing a doctrine of prime matter to Aristotle must offer a different interpretation: that if we were to make the mistake of regarding matter, as opposed to form, as substance, we would be committed (absurdly) to the existence of a wholly indeterminate underlying thing. According to the traditional interpretation, these lines are saying that Socrates and Callias are numerically distinct because of their matter, not their form, and on the face of it this is the clearest example of Aristotle affirming that matter is the principle of individuation.
[57] D'Arcy W. Thompson's On Growth and Form: A landmark for the ... — D'Arcy Thompson has gone beyond the common standpoint according to which biological evolution takes place by genetic mutation and selection, giving relevance also to the geometrical framework in which the related biochemical reactions provide molecular bases to this evolution process, so explaining the geometrical mechanics which moulds morphology of biological system, at a macroscopical level, through the various influences coming from the environment in which evolution goes on, so acting as perturbation factors – besides the genetic ones – moulding shape and structure of biological systems during their ontogenetic course (Abzhanov, 2017). The approach to study and describe mathematically biological morphology and its transformations that is usually associated with D'Arcy Thompson is based on the phenomenon of relative independence of the biological form from the underlying molecular processes that participate in its generation.
[59] D'Arcy W. Thompson's On Growth and Form: A landmark for the ... — The celebrated 1917 work "On Growth and Form" of D'Arcy W. Thompson has established a landmark for mathematical biology, introducing new perspectives of study and research in biology, providing mathematical methods to morphology of biological systems. In this brief historical essay, we recall the no …
[65] Mathematical models of morphogenesis - ResearchGate — In the Turing approach, morphogenesis models are described by reaction-diffusion parabolic partial differential equations.
[67] Closing the loop on morphogenesis: a mathematical model of ... — A number of mathematical frameworks have been developed to help understand, predict, and control the decision-making of cells in the morphogenetic problem space. Here, we first review several popular approaches to modeling this process, highlighting their positive features and limitations.
[70] Scientific Revolution | Definition, History, Scientists, Inventions ... — Ask the Chatbot Games & Quizzes History & Society Science & Tech Biographies Animals & Nature Geography & Travel Arts & Culture ProCon Money Videos Out of the ferment of the Renaissance and Reformation there arose a new view of science, bringing about the following transformations: the reeducation of common sense in favour of abstract reasoning; the substitution of a quantitative for a qualitative view of nature; the view of nature as a machine rather than as an organism; the development of an experimental, scientific method that sought definite answers to certain limited questions couched in the framework of specific theories; and the acceptance of new criteria for explanation, stressing the “how” rather than the “why” that had characterized the Aristotelian search for final causes.
[71] The Philosophy of Science and Its Departure from Platonic and ... — This essay explores the profound transformation in the philosophy of science from its roots in Platonic and Aristotelian thought to the mechanistic worldview that emerged during the Renaissance
[73] The Mechanical Philosophy: Mechanistic and Materialistic Conceptions of ... — The mechanistic philosophy asserts that all life phenomena can be completely explained in terms of the physical-chemical laws that govern the inanimate world. Vitalist philosophy claims that the real entity of life is the soul, or vital force, and that the body exists for and through the soul, which is incomprehensible in strictly scientific terms.
[74] Turing Pattern Breakthroughs in Modern Biology — Turing Pattern Breakthroughs in Modern Biology - BiologyInsights Explore the latest advancements in Turing patterns and their impact on understanding complex biological systems and developmental processes. These naturally occurring patterns are crucial for understanding complex biological processes and offer insights into how organisms develop and maintain structural diversity. The concept of reaction diffusion theories, introduced by Alan Turing in 1952, is foundational in understanding complex pattern emergence in biological systems. Integrating reaction diffusion models with genetic data allows better predictions and manipulation of spotted patterns, with applications in conservation biology. Turing patterns manifest in various biological contexts, offering insights into pattern formation mechanisms. Turing patterns are integral to understanding developmental biology, providing a framework for exploring how organisms develop complex structures.
[79] Morphogenesis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics — Since its inception by early embryologists (Wolpert, 1969, 2011), morphogenesis has been routinely approached in terms of positional information: the hypothesis that a pattern of a morphogenetic substance (i.e. regulator of gene expression) or property (i.e. mechanical stress) serves to differentially alter gene expression in a field of cells, ultimately acting as an instructive signal to induce properly proportioned tissues and anatomical forms. Given the demonstrated roles of Vmem in morphogenesis, it is apparent that a deep understanding of biological pattern formation in development, regeneration, and disease requires a solid comprehension of how bioelectrical signals such as Vmem integrate with molecular signaling networks to control single cell state, and what unique properties bioelectricity adds to transport phenomena in gap junction-coupled cell networks to provide coordination and order at the organ level.
[80] How Morphogenesis Shapes an Organism During Development — This process plays a vital role in morphogenesis because it allows cells to form the different types of tissues and organs required for the organism’s structure. It is a critical process in morphogenesis because it allows the cells to form tissues and organs in the correct positions within the body. During morphogenesis, the ECM plays a critical role in organizing cells into tissues and guiding their movement during development. Through a series of well-coordinated events such as cell division, differentiation, migration, apoptosis, and the activation of signaling pathways, morphogenesis ensures that cells, tissues, and organs are formed in the right place, at the right time, and with the correct structure.
[84] Morphogenesis: Definition & Development | Vaia — Environmental factors, such as temperature, chemicals, and nutrition, can significantly influence morphogenesis by affecting cellular processes, gene expression, and signaling pathways. These changes can lead to alterations in tissue development and congenital anomalies, indicating the crucial role of environmental conditions in shaping
[89] The Ballet of Morphogenesis - Cell Press — Cell-cell signals play two distinct roles in the ballet of morphogenesis. In the first, cell signaling helps create a cast with the proper talents by regulating genes encoding the machinery that particular cells require to change shape or move. ... Mapping Wnt Pathways onto Cellular Behaviors. ... The role for JAK/Stat signaling in preparing
[92] "Forced to communicate: integration of mechanical and biochemical ... — Morphogenesis occurs across a range of time scales and physical space, requiring the coordinated interplay of a host of different cell behaviors. Although ligand-based biochemical signaling elicits cellular responses during tissue morphogenesis, the mechanical forces generated by cells downstream of this signaling ultimately mold tissues.
[93] Signaling in Cell Differentiation and Morphogenesis - PMC — A recent study shows that the cell polarity pathways regulated by Par proteins and the cellular machinery that controls the orientation of the cell spindle also engage the Notch signaling pathway as a downstream effector to control the balance between proliferation and differentiation (Williams et al. In addition to being required for the migration of cells away from the primitive streak, FGF8 signaling through FGFR1 controls mesoderm formation through regulating the expression of T (Brachyury) and Tbx6 genes (Sun et al. Recently, evidence has started to emerge that shows that mechanical forces may themselves have direct effects on cell fate by activating downstream signaling cascades (Fig. 6) (Arnsdorf et al.
[94] Molecular Mechanisms of Morphogenesis Lessons from Embryonic Development — For example, it regulates the patterning of the mesoderm and endoderm in Xenopus embryos. Mutations in Wnt components can lead to severe developmental defects, illustrating the pathway's critical role in morphogenesis . The Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway is essential for cell differentiation and tissue patterning.
[95] Morphogenesis and tissue engineering - ScienceDirect — At the cellular level, tissue morphogenesis is the result of the coordination of multiple different cell behaviors, such as proliferation, migration, differentiation, and apoptosis. ... In this section, we will first give the reader an overview of the molecular and cellular interactions involved during morphogenesis, before zooming out to a
[96] "Forced to communicate: integration of mechanical and biochemical ... — In addition to cell-cell adhesion, cell-extracellular matrix (ECM) adhesion is critical to convey or buffer the transmission of forces across tissues during morphogenesis .Physical coupling of cells to the ECM at focal adhesions (FA) is critical for cellular reorganization and movement, but the ECM is also an instructional biochemical signal received through integrin receptors to
[98] Tissue mechanics in morphogenesis: Active control of tissue material ... — Upon external mechanical stresses, the actomyosin cytoskeleton can redistribute differently in the cell to support adherens junctions, promote contraction, or alternatively cell elongation. ... Here we summarise what is known about tissue topology regulation and its effect on mechanical properties during morphogenesis.
[99] The mechanics of development: models and methods for tissue morphogenesis — Furthermore, the basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factor Twist1 is expressed in the mesenchyme of the developing heart cushions (Ma et al., 2005), and induces proliferation and migration of endocardial cushion cells (Shelton and Yutzey, 2008). Mechanical stress activates ROCK (Chiquet et al., 2009; Wozniak and Chen, 2008) and induces expression of Twist in Drosophila embryos (Desprat et al., 2008a; Farge, 2003), suggesting that hemodynamic forces may induce EMT and heart valve formation through Rho GTPases and Twist. Sophisticated lithography-based microfabrication methods developed in the past decade have enabled researchers to control the magnitudes of mechanical stress experienced by isolated single cells by restricting cell spreading (Figure 2)(Chen et al., 1997).
[122] PDF — Morphogenesis shapes multicellular organisms, their tissues and organs, and even the individual cells of single-celled organisms. Morphogenesis is a highly regulated process, although it is more flexible, or 'plastic', in some types of organisms than others (compare plants to humans, for example). Even with
[123] How Morphogenesis Shapes an Organism During Development — This process plays a vital role in morphogenesis because it allows cells to form the different types of tissues and organs required for the organism’s structure. It is a critical process in morphogenesis because it allows the cells to form tissues and organs in the correct positions within the body. During morphogenesis, the ECM plays a critical role in organizing cells into tissues and guiding their movement during development. Through a series of well-coordinated events such as cell division, differentiation, migration, apoptosis, and the activation of signaling pathways, morphogenesis ensures that cells, tissues, and organs are formed in the right place, at the right time, and with the correct structure.
[124] Morphogenesis - Wikipedia — Some of the earliest ideas and mathematical descriptions on how physical processes and constraints affect biological growth, and hence natural patterns such as the spirals of phyllotaxis, were written by D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson in his 1917 book On Growth and Form[note 1] and Alan Turing in his The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis (1952). Where Thompson explained animal body shapes as being created by varying rates of growth in different directions, for instance to create the spiral shell of a snail, Turing correctly predicted a mechanism of morphogenesis, the diffusion of two different chemical signals, one activating and one deactivating growth, to set up patterns of development, decades before the formation of such patterns was observed. The fuller understanding of the mechanisms involved in actual organisms required the discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953, and the development of molecular biology and biochemistry.[citation needed]
[131] Signaling involved in hair follicle morphogenesis and development — Hair follicle morphogenesis depends on Wnt, Shh, Notch, BMP and other signaling pathways interplay between epithelial and mesenchymal cells. The Wnt pathway plays an essential role during hair follicle induction, Shh is involved in morphogenesis and late stage differentiation, Notch signaling determines stem cell fate while BMP is involved in cellular differentiation.
[139] Living Tissues Are More than Cell Clusters: The Extracellular Matrix as ... — Cells can drive morphogenesis directly, by generating forces that deform the tissue, or indirectly, by changing the mechanical properties of the tissue, and thus, its response to an externally applied force (e.g., Davidson et al., 2009; Keller et al., 2008; Lecuit et al., 2011). Cells can actively generate pulling forces by contracting their cytoskeleton, a behavior that when coordinated in epithelial sheets can lead, for example, to the formation of tubes, closure of openings or invaginations (for a review see Sawyer et al., 2010). For example, in vitro experiments have shown that both cells and inert particles can be transported in a directional way by forces generated by the assembly of ECM components, a mechanism called matrix-driven translocation (Newman et al., 1985).
[143] Engineering strategies to recapitulate epithelial morphogenesis within ... — The mechanical properties (e.g. stiffness) of the extracellular matrix (ECM) influence cell fate and tissue morphogenesis and contribute to disease progression. Nevertheless, our understanding of the mechanisms by which ECM rigidity modulates cell behavior and fate remains rudimentary.
[155] Mechanisms of bacterial morphogenesis: Evolutionary cell biology ... — Two examples illustrate the potential benefits of studying evolutionary cell biology in bacteria: 1) The role of SpmX in stalk synthesis could not be inferred from its role in the much studied model C. crescentus and instead its discovery required its study in the closely related Asticcacaulis genus. In addition, the machinery for stalk
[158] 'Biogeneric' developmental processes: drivers of major transitions in ... — Using three examples drawn from animal systems, I advance the hypothesis that major transitions in multicellular evolution often involved the constitution of new cell-based materials with unprecedented morphogenetic capabilities. I term the materials and formative processes that arise when highly ev …
[169] Craniofacial genetics: Where have we been and where are we going? - PMC — Hypomorphic alleles can reveal a function in craniofacial morphogenesis for a gene product in which a total loss of function allele leads to death prior to craniofacial development. ... In Treacher Collins syndrome, for example, the same TCOF1 mutation can impact the face with dramatically different levels of severity . Such phenotypic
[170] Exploring the Underlying Genetics of Craniofacial Morphology through ... — De novo generation of a syndrome with a nonspecific craniofacial morphology can provide insights into the genetic etiology of craniofacial variation, by finding the location of the de novo mutation . The gene region where this mutation is located can either be functionally responsible for the craniofacial trait or in linkage
[172] Shaping faces: genetic and epigenetic control of craniofacial ... — Major differences in facial morphology distinguish vertebrate species. Variation of facial traits underlies the uniqueness of human individuals, and abnormal craniofacial morphogenesis during development leads to birth defects that significantly affect quality of life. Studies during the past 40 yea …
[187] Gene expression patterns of the developing human face at single cell ... — Craniofacial development gives rise to the complex structures of the face and involves the interplay of diverse cell types. ... alongside human biased differences in gene expression programs. CNCCs, which play a crucial role in craniofacial morphogenesis, exhibit the lowest marker gene conservation, underscoring their evolutionary plasticity
[188] Exploring the Underlying Genetics of Craniofacial Morphology through ... — Medical and clinical genetic research using family studies have proven foundational in establishing our understanding of which genes affect craniofacial variation. Although linkage analysis studies have proven to be very useful in defining the genes underlying atypical patterns of craniofacial development, researches on how exactly (in 3D) the faces of affected and unaffected persons differ have lagged behind mapping studies. Through existing and future investigations of facial heritability, craniofacial evolution, and individual gene effects, a better understanding of the genetic architecture of craniofacial morphology is certainly anticipated. Future studies that investigate different aspects of craniofacial variation in the context of genetic variation in several human populations and animal models are indispensable. Genetic and environmental contributions to facial morphological variation: a 3D population-based twin study.
[189] Craniofacial Development: Key Stages and Growth Patterns — Regulatory Genes And Signaling Pathways Craniofacial development is coordinated by regulatory genes and signaling pathways that direct cellular behavior, tissue interactions, and morphogenesis. Among the most influential genetic regulators are homeobox (HOX) and distal-less (DLX) genes, which establish spatial identity within craniofacial
[194] PDF — As many morphogenetic events are driven by rapid cellular processes, understanding morphogenesis requires monitoring development in real time. Here, we discuss how live-imaging approaches can help identify morphogenetic mechanisms otherwise missed in static snapshots of development.
[195] Revealing Epithelial Morphogenetic Mechanisms through Live Imaging — Epithelial morphogenesis is guided by mechanical forces and biochemical signals that vary spatiotemporally. As many morphogenetic events are driven by rapid cellular processes, understanding morphogenesis requires monitoring development in real time. Here, we discuss how live-imaging approaches can help identify morphogenetic mechanisms otherwise missed in static snapshots of development. We
[196] Toward high-content/high-throughput imaging and analysis of embryonic ... — Abstract In vivo study of embryonic morphogenesis tremendously benefits from recent advances in live microscopy and computational analyses. Quantitative and automated investigation of morphogenetic processes opens the field to high-content and high-throughput strategies. Following experimental workflow currently developed in cell biology, we identify the key challenges for applying such
[197] Imaging morphogenesis: technological advances and biological insights — Abstract Morphogenesis, the development of the shape of an organism, is a dynamic process on a multitude of scales, from fast subcellular rearrangements and cell movements to slow structural changes at the whole-organism level. Live-imaging approaches based on light microscopy reveal the intricate dynamics of this process and are thus indispensable for investigating the underlying mechanisms
[198] Reverse engineering morphogenesis through Bayesian optimization of ... — This workflow is extensible toward reverse-engineering morphogenesis across organ systems and for real-time control of complex multicellular systems.
[199] Imaging Morphogenesis: Technological Advances and Biological ... - Science — This Review discusses emerging imaging techniques that can record morphogenesis at temporal scales from seconds to days and at spatial scales from hundreds of nanometers to several millimeters. To unlock their full potential, these methods need to be matched with new computational approaches and physical models that help convert highly complex
[216] Programming Morphogenesis through Systems and Synthetic Biology — Engineering morphogenesis is an emerging area of science that integrates engineering principles with developmental biology to control and guide collective cell behaviors. Mammalian tissue development is an intricate, spatiotemporal process of self-organization that emerges from gene regulatory networks of differentiating stem cells.
[217] Forced to communicate: Integration of mechanical and biochemical ... — Integration of mechanical and biochemical signaling during morphogenesis. Mechanical and biochemical signaling can be integrated to affect various morphogenetic outcomes including tissue growth and cellular differentiation. ... respectively, in a Turing reaction-diffusion system , to establish the formation of feather buds repetitively at
[219] Harnessing Mechanobiology for Tissue Engineering - ScienceDirect — Providing an appropriate mechanical environment for each tissue has been a major challenge in engineering tissues. Here, we discuss the use of biomaterial scaffolds in recreating tissue-like mechanical properties for cells, as well as the application of mechanical forces to improve cell and engineered tissue structure and function.
[220] Tissue Engineering; Current Status & Futuristic Scope - PMC — TE is an emerging technology that uses the combination of cells, engineering methods and materials and suitable biochemical and physicochemical factors to improve or replace biological functions, meant to reconstruct damaged or diseased organs and tissues in vitro and transplantation in vivo to recover lost or malfunctioned organ or tissue . Considering the progress in tissue culture, preparation of scaffold techniques, scaffold 3D printing, and use of animal models for in vivo applications, the TE technique is advancing at great pace to overcome the challenges and major problems coming its way regarding clinical application [24–26]. The primary clinical obstacles relate to problems with the transfer of living cells from the culture conditions into the human body; this applies to many isolated cells, tissue constructs and artificially engineered organs.
[221] The Role of Synthetic Morphogenesis in Advancing Developmental Biology — Synthetic morphogenesis — a field at the intersection of synthetic biology and developmental science — is transforming our approach to studying and engineering biological systems. The emerging field of synthetic morphogenesis integrates principles of synthetic biology and bioengineering to direct cellular self-organization and tissue formation.1 This approach leverages the ability to program cellular behavior and enables the in vitro reconstruction of morphogenetic processes, offering novel insights into developmental biology.2 In this article, we examine the various ways in which synthetic morphogenesis is revolutionizing our understanding of biological development, as well as some of the technical and ethical challenges associated with this technology. Synthetic morphogenesis has significant applications in developmental biology, particularly in tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, and disease modeling. Retrieved on March 28, 2025 from https://www.azolifesciences.com/article/The-Role-of-Synthetic-Morphogenesis-in-Advancing-Developmental-Biology.aspx. <https://www.azolifesciences.com/article/The-Role-of-Synthetic-Morphogenesis-in-Advancing-Developmental-Biology.aspx>. https://www.azolifesciences.com/article/The-Role-of-Synthetic-Morphogenesis-in-Advancing-Developmental-Biology.aspx. AZoLifeSciences, viewed 28 March 2025, https://www.azolifesciences.com/article/The-Role-of-Synthetic-Morphogenesis-in-Advancing-Developmental-Biology.aspx.
[223] Synthetic Morphogenesis - PMC - National Center for Biotechnology ... — As the field of regenerative medicine matures, synthetic biology is poised to synergize with all three approaches in the development of complex tissues. Synthetic gene networks promise orthogonal control of differentiation and cell-fate decisions by offering programmable control of endogenous gene networks using signals that can be engineered.
[243] Imaging Morphogenesis: Technological Advances and Biological ... - Science — This investigation, however, faces fundamental challenges, because morphogenesis—i.e., the shaping of an organism by cell movements, cell-cell interactions, collective cell behavior, cell shape changes, cell divisions, and cell death—is a dynamic process on multiple spatial and temporal scales: from submicrometer and subsecond dynamics of
[244] Physics and the canalization of morphogenesis: a grand challenge in ... — Morphogenesis takes place in a background of organism-to-organism and environmental variation. Therefore, a fundamental question in the study of morphogenesis is how the mechanical processes of tissue movement and deformation are affected by that variability, and in turn, how the mechanics of the system modulates phenotypic variation.
[246] How does climate influence xylem morphogenesis over the growing season ... — The distinct climate impacts on cell enlargement and wall thickening indicate that different morphogenetic mechanisms are responsible for different tracheid traits. ... and to verify whether temporal shifts and duration of the influence of climate on morphogenesis change according to the length of the growing season, which is shorter at higher
[247] Genetic and morphological shifts associated with climate change in a ... — Background Rapid morphological change is emerging as a consequence of climate change in many systems. It is intuitive to hypothesize that temporal morphological trends are driven by the same selective pressures that have established well-known ecogeographic patterns over spatial environmental gradients (e.g., Bergman's and Allen's rules). However, mechanistic understanding of contemporary
[249] Anthropogenic habitat alternation significantly decreases α- and β ... — Anthropogenic habitat alternation is one of the leading causes of biodiversity loss, especially in freshwater ecosystems. Understanding the mechanisms of how habitat degradation drives changes in spatial patterns of species assemblages is fundamental to conservation science. We conducted an empirical study to investigate the species richness (α-diversity) and community composition (β
[250] How the type of anthropogenic change alters the consequences of ... — For instance, anthropogenic alteration can degrade the fitness value of habitats without altering available habitat selection cues, such as habitat alterations causing changes in predator communities that result in heightened predation rates of prey . Traps can also emerge when novel cues or habitats are triggered by anthropogenic change.
[252] Forces in Tissue Morphogenesis and Patterning - Cell Press — During development, mechanical forces cause changes in size, shape, number, position, and gene expression of cells. They are therefore integral to any morphogenetic processes. Force generation by actin-myosin networks and force transmission through adhesive complexes are two self-organizing phenomena driving tissue morphogenesis. Coordination and integration of forces by long-range force
[253] Mechanotransduction in cardiovascular morphogenesis and tissue engineering — Deciphering how hemodynamic forces control cell behaviors during cardiovascular morphogenesis have strong implications in cardiac tissue engineering, which aims to restore the function of a damaged tissue by replacing it with a biomimetic construct . The understanding of how ECs and EdCs sense and respond to mechanical forces helps to
[258] Revealing Epithelial Morphogenetic Mechanisms through Live Imaging — Advances in live imaging, fluorescent biosensors, and spatiotemporal perturbation approaches are enabling investigators to monitor and manipulate morphogenetic processes as they occur. In this review, we focus on recent insights into epithelial morphogenesis that were made possible by live imaging of developing systems.
[260] Imaging morphogenesis: technological advances and biological insights — Live-imaging approaches based on light microscopy reveal the intricate dynamics of this process and are thus indispensable for investigating the underlying mechanisms. This Review discusses emerging imaging techniques that can record morphogenesis at temporal scales from seconds to days and at spatial scales from hundreds of nanometers to
[261] Patterning and Morphogenesis From Cells to Organisms: Progress, Common ... — The appearance of the CRISPR/Cas9-based genomic editing techniques (Adli, 2018) is among the most relevant of those new approaches, with an immediate deep impact in the field of cell and developmental biology. For instance, it has democratized the use of genetics to the analysis of patterning and morphogenetic processes.
[262] Imaging morphogenesis - PMC — Recently, much attention has been devoted to the promise of the emerging technology of lightsheet microscopy. Here, optical sectioning is achieved by moving fluorescent samples through a 'sheet' of excitation light perpendicular to the imaging objective. ... In toto live imaging of mouse morphogenesis and new insights into neural tube
[265] Advances and Challenges in the Mechanics of Biological Soft Tissues ... — The mechanical properties of biological soft tissues play a critical role in the study of biomechanics and protective measures against human injury. Various testing techniques at different scales have been employed to characterize the mechanical behavior of soft tissues, which is essential for the development of accurate tissue simulants and numerical models. This review comprehensively
[266] Advances and challenges in biomaterials for tendon and enthesis repair ... — However, due to their intricate tissue architecture, unique mechanical properties, and especially their sluggish and limited innate regenerative capacity, repairing these injuries remains a formidable clinical challenge. Here, we present a comprehensive review of biomaterials advances in tendon and enthesis repair recently.
[268] (PDF) Genomics meets remote sensing in global change studies ... — Rapid advances in technology, namely remote sensing and data analysis, may help to overcome these gaps. Integration with recently developed genomic techniques such as DNA barcoding may make it possible to monitor large-scale biodiversity at multiple levels .