Table of Contents
Overview
Definition and Transmission
Malaria is a life-threatening illness caused by parasitic protozoans of the genus Plasmodium, which includes species such as P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. malariae, P. ovale, and P. knowlesi. The disease is primarily transmitted to humans through the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes, which serve as the primary vectors for the malaria parasites.[36.1] The transmission cycle of malaria involves a series of stages through which the malaria parasites infect both humans and mosquitoes. Initially, the cycle begins when a mosquito bites an infected person and ingests the parasites. These parasites then develop within the mosquito before being transmitted to another human host during subsequent bites. The lifecycle includes critical stages such as the sporozoite stage, which migrates to the liver, where it multiplies. Following this, the parasites enter the bloodstream and infect red blood cells, leading to the symptoms associated with malaria. Detailed illustrations of the malaria lifecycle stages, including those of the Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax species, provide further insight into this complex process.[2.1] Malaria is a significant global public health burden, with an estimated 229 million cases reported worldwide in 2019, and approximately 94% of these cases occurring in the African region.[3.1] This mosquito-borne infectious disease is caused by parasitic protozoans of the genus Plasmodium, which includes species such as vivax, malariae, ovale, knowlesi, and falciparum. The transmission of malaria is primarily facilitated by female mosquito vectors of the Anopheles species.[36.1] Environmental factors, particularly climate change, play a crucial role in influencing mosquito populations and their ability to transmit malaria. As predicted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), climate changes are expected to lead to a widespread increase in the transmission potential of malaria mosquitoes and an expansion of areas conducive to malaria transmission.[31.1] The interactions between weather, mosquito ecology, and climate change have been of longstanding interest, highlighting the sensitivity of malaria transmission dynamics to environmental conditions.[32.1] Malaria is a life-threatening illness caused by parasites transmitted through the bite of an infected mosquito, specifically the Plasmodium species.[5.1] Effective vector control strategies are essential for preventing malaria transmission and reducing the incidence of the disease.[4.1] These strategies are a vital component of malaria control and elimination efforts, as they significantly lower the risk of infection.[4.1] Additionally, the use of antimalarial medications is crucial for treating malaria and clearing the infection from the body; timely initiation of treatment is important for effective management.[5.1] Regular monitoring of antimalarial drug efficacy is necessary to inform treatment policies in malaria-endemic countries and to detect and respond to drug resistance.[4.1] Enhanced surveillance of malaria cases and deaths allows health ministries to identify the most affected areas and population groups, facilitating the design of effective health interventions and the evaluation of malaria control programs.[4.1]Symptoms and Risk Factors
Malaria is significantly influenced by various socio-economic determinants that exacerbate its transmission, particularly in low-income regions. Key factors include poverty, inadequate housing conditions, and limited access to healthcare services, which collectively heighten the risk of malaria infection and contribute to sustained disease transmission in high-incidence areas.[11.1] The African region is particularly affected, accounting for 95% of all malaria cases and 96% of malaria-related deaths, with children under five years old representing 80% of these fatalities.[13.1] The relationship between malaria and poverty is complex; countries with high malaria prevalence had income levels in 1995 that were only 33% of those in malaria-free countries, regardless of geographical location.[12.1] This indicates that while poverty is a significant factor, the high incidence of malaria in these regions is not solely a consequence of economic deprivation. Housing conditions also play a critical role in malaria transmission. Studies have shown that individuals living in houses with earth floors are at a higher risk of Plasmodium infection compared to those in homes with cement or stone floors.[14.1] Furthermore, factors such as the construction materials of roofs and walls, education levels, occupation, and overall wealth status have been examined for their impact on malaria prevalence, although some analyses indicate a lack of consistent relationship across different studies.[14.1]History
Ancient References and Understanding
The history of malaria can be traced back to its prehistoric origins as a zoonotic disease affecting primates in Africa, evolving into a significant human infectious disease that has impacted populations across the globe, with the exception of Antarctica.[54.1] The understanding of malaria's etiology began to take shape in the late 17th century, following the discovery of bacteria by Antoni van Leeuwenhoek in 1676. This discovery, coupled with the development of the germ theory of infection by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch in the late 19th century, intensified the search for the causative agents of malaria.[51.1] Malaria's influence on human genetics is profound, as it has shaped the genetic landscape of modern populations. Conditions such as thalassaemia, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, and sickle-cell trait have become prevalent in regions where malaria is endemic, illustrating the disease's role as a selective pressure on human evolution.[52.1] In the context of treatment, the rediscovery of qing-hao (Artemisia annua) during the Vietnam War marked a significant advancement in antimalarial therapy. This discovery was notable for its unique chemical structure, which differed from previously known biological compounds. Chinese scientists rapidly progressed from laboratory studies to clinical applications, leading to the synthesis of more effective derivatives. Today, artemisinin and its derivatives are crucial in combating drug-resistant strains of malaria, particularly in Southeast Asia.[53.1]Colonial Era and Spread
During the colonial era, the spread of malaria was significantly influenced by various environmental and socio-political factors. A descriptive ecological study utilizing malaria surveillance data from 1884 to 2019 highlighted the major environmental factors, historical events, and public health policy changes that shaped malaria transmission in Panamá, illustrating the complex interplay between colonial activities and disease dynamics.[64.1] In the early 20th century, public health strategies in endemic countries began to focus on preventing malaria transmission and controlling its vectors. This period saw the development of vector control strategies, which were debated internationally following a malaria outbreak in Europe in 1925.[65.1] The late 1950s and early 1960s marked a pivotal moment when the World Health Organization (WHO) initiated projects aimed at malaria eradication, leveraging effective agents for transmission interruption and radical cures, which were believed to be achievable due to the absence of an animal reservoir for the malaria parasite.[66.1] The historical prevalence of malaria has significantly influenced demographic changes in affected regions, particularly during the colonial era. A review utilizing geographic information systems and historical maps has quantified the anthropogenic impact on malaria distribution throughout the 20th century, allowing for the investigation of global and regional patterns at six intervals between 1900 and 2002.[84.1] This analysis also enabled researchers to quantify changes in the population living in areas at risk of malaria, highlighting the demographic shifts associated with the disease.[85.1] Despite unprecedented investments in malaria control since the early 2000s, which have averted a substantial malaria burden, the flattening of case incidence rates in Africa, combined with a rapidly growing population at risk, has resulted in a resurgence of malaria cases comparable to pre-investment levels.[87.1] Malaria continues to be a leading cause of illness and death globally, with countries in sub-Saharan Africa disproportionately affected.[88.1] Consequently, global high-resolution maps of malaria prevalence, incidence, and mortality are essential for tracking progress against the disease and informing strategic malaria control efforts.[88.1]Recent Advancements
Treatment Innovations
Over the past two decades, significant advancements have been made in malaria treatment, particularly through the evolution of drug therapies and the urgent need to address emerging resistance patterns. Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) have become a cornerstone strategy in malaria control, demonstrating remarkable efficacy against both Plasmodium falciparum and non-falciparum malaria, thereby bolstering disease control efforts.[111.1] However, the emergence of artemisinin-resistant malaria parasites in regions such as Rwanda, Uganda, and the Horn of Africa presents a critical challenge, as there are currently no immediate replacements for ACTs.[97.1] The development of drug resistance and cross-resistance against various antimalarials, including artemisinin derivatives, has led to a decline in the efficacy of these treatments in clinical practice, highlighting the urgent need for new therapeutic agents and drug combinations that can effectively tackle drug resistance and provide faster action in malaria treatment, especially in developing countries.[100.1] Despite the marked reduction in malaria incidence and mortality attributed to the introduction of ACTs, the ongoing development of resistance remains an alarming situation that necessitates continued research and innovation in malaria treatment.[100.1] In response to the growing threat of drug resistance, researchers are actively pursuing novel therapeutic agents and drug combinations. The Development of Triple Artemisinin-based Combination Therapies (DeTACT) trial is investigating new combinations, such as Artemether-lumefantrine-amodiaquine and Artesunate-piperaquine-mefloquine, to establish their safety and efficacy.[113.1] Additionally, the discovery of new chemical compounds, such as MED6-189, shows promise as a strong inhibitor of drug-resistant malaria parasites, highlighting the ongoing efforts to identify effective alternatives.[114.1] Innovative approaches are urgently needed to address the challenges posed by drug-resistant malaria parasites, which have significantly compromised the efficacy of existing antimalarial agents, including artemisinin derivatives.[100.1] The rise of resistant parasite types has created a pressing demand for novel antimalarial agents that offer single-dosage therapies and possess extensive curative capabilities.[112.1] Current research is focusing on several promising novel targets for drug development, including glucose transporters such as PfHT1, various kinases within the Plasmodium kinome, and enzymes involved in red blood cell invasion and oxidative stress management.[123.1] These strategies aim to enhance the efficacy of treatments while reducing the likelihood of resistance, particularly against the rapidly mutating Plasmodium species.[124.1] The development of new therapeutic agents and drug combinations is essential to effectively tackle drug resistance and improve treatment outcomes, especially in regions heavily affected by malaria.[100.1]Public Health Strategies
Recent advancements in malaria control underscore the need for innovative public health strategies that are both effective and sustainable. Policymakers are encouraged to support emerging approaches such as climate-smart agriculture, ecosystem-based vector control, and remote sensing technologies, which are essential for adapting malaria control efforts in the face of climate change [101.1]. The warming climate has allowed malaria to spread into previously less affected highland areas, necessitating a deeper understanding of environmental impacts on vector distribution [102.1][103.1]. In addition to climate adaptation, advancements in antimalarial therapeutics, including artesunate for severe malaria and artemisinin combination therapies (ACTs) for uncomplicated malaria, have improved treatment outcomes, reducing mortality and enhancing recovery times [104.1]. However, the success of these medical interventions is closely linked to community engagement. Local knowledge about mosquito breeding sites and traditional health beliefs can inform more effective intervention strategies [107.1]. Countries are increasingly adopting community engagement approaches to design and implement malaria interventions, recognizing that community participation is crucial for the success of prevention strategies [106.1]. Understanding community perceptions of febrile illness and the importance placed on malaria prevention can enhance the effectiveness of these initiatives [107.2]. The introduction of malaria vaccines, such as RTS,S/AS01 and R21/Matrix-M™, offers significant potential for improving public health in Africa. However, challenges such as inadequate sensitization, training, and issues related to vaccine schedules and eligibility criteria have hindered widespread vaccination coverage [109.1][110.1]. To address these challenges, it is vital to enhance community education on immunization, improve data utilization, and implement targeted awareness campaigns emphasizing the importance of vaccination [108.1]. By focusing on these strategies, stakeholders can work towards bridging the gaps in malaria vaccination in Africa and ultimately improve public health outcomes.Epidemiology
Global Statistics
In 2023, the global burden of malaria was significant, with an estimated 263 million cases reported, resulting in an incidence rate of 60.4 cases per 1,000 population at risk. This marked an increase of 11 million cases from the previous year, reflecting a rise in incidence from 58.6 cases per 1,000 population at risk in 2022.[168.1] The mortality associated with malaria was also considerable, with approximately 597,000 deaths recorded globally, translating to a mortality rate of 13.7 per 100,000 population.[166.1] The WHO African Region bore the brunt of this burden, accounting for an estimated 94% of all malaria cases and 95% of malaria-related deaths worldwide in 2023. Alarmingly, 76% of the deaths in this region occurred among children under the age of five.[166.1] The global malaria community has faced numerous challenges, including the impacts of climate change, drug and insecticide resistance, and the ongoing effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, which have hindered progress in malaria control efforts.[169.1] Over the past two decades, the World Health Organization (WHO) has reported significant achievements in malaria control, with 1.5 billion cases averted and 7.6 million lives saved.[136.1] However, the estimated number of global malaria cases in 2022 exceeded pre-COVID-19 pandemic levels recorded in 2019, highlighting ongoing challenges in the fight against the disease.[137.1] The latest data from WHO indicates that since 2000, approximately 2.2 billion cases of malaria and 12.7 million deaths have been averted, yet malaria continues to pose a serious global health threat, particularly in the WHO African Region.[138.1] In 2023, there were an estimated 263 million cases and 597,000 malaria deaths worldwide, underscoring the urgent need for renewed global efforts to address this public health crisis.[138.1]High-Risk Regions
Malaria transmission is notably heterogeneous, with high-risk areas often correlating with socio-economic factors such as population density and rural poverty. In Ghana, for instance, pockets of high transmission predominantly affect the poorest populations residing in rural regions, while the urban population has more than doubled in the past two decades due to migration and population growth, which can influence malaria dynamics.[155.1] The interaction of environmental, socio-economic, and health factors plays a critical role in shaping malaria transmission patterns. Factors such as isothermality, human population density, and access to health services significantly impact the occurrence and seasonality of malaria.[154.1] Moreover, the movement of malaria parasites, primarily through the migration of infected individuals, is crucial for the effectiveness of intervention strategies across varying transmission intensities.[156.1] The spatio-temporal patterns of malaria risk are strongly influenced by extrinsic factors, including climate and socio-economic heterogeneity, which act synergistically at local scales.[157.1] Climate change further exacerbates the risk of malaria transmission by altering environmental conditions. For example, loss of livelihoods due to climate change can lead to large-scale population displacement, potentially increasing malaria transmission in areas where displaced individuals with low immunity settle.[170.1] Climate-based distribution models indicate that as global temperatures rise, the geographic distribution of malaria is expected to expand, increasing the areas suitable for malaria transmission.[174.1] The biological activity of the malaria parasite and its vectors is sensitive to climatic influences, particularly temperature and precipitation, which are critical in assessing the potential impact of global climate change on malaria incidence.[174.1] In light of these factors, it is essential for global health organizations to implement strategies aimed at mitigating climate change to prevent the spread of malaria and other infectious diseases. Continued research and funding are necessary to improve treatment for vulnerable populations and to monitor the changing distribution of malaria due to climate change and other factors.[172.1]Prevention And Control
Mosquito Control Measures
Mosquito control measures are critical components of malaria prevention and control strategies. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the deployment of either insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) or indoor residual spraying (IRS) as effective vector control methods in areas at risk of malaria transmission.[187.1] These interventions aim to reduce the population of Anopheles mosquitoes, which are the primary vectors of malaria. In response to the growing challenge of insecticide resistance among malaria vectors, the Global Plan for Insecticide Resistance Management (GPIRM) was introduced by WHO in 2012. This plan emphasizes the need for national programs to switch chemical classes used in indoor residual spraying to slow the development of resistance.[183.1] Furthermore, Integrated Vector Management (IVM) advocates for the use of a comprehensive range of vector control tools, including novel technologies to manage outdoor transmission effectively.[185.1] Recent advancements in vector control strategies also include innovative approaches such as genetic modification of mosquitoes and biological control methods. These strategies are designed to enhance the effectiveness of malaria control efforts and address the challenges posed by insecticide resistance.[186.1] The importance of continuous monitoring and data collection on local vector species, their susceptibility to insecticides, and human behaviors is emphasized to adapt control measures effectively.[187.1]In this section:
Control StrategiesResistance ManagementVector ManagementControl MethodsContinuous Monitoring
Challenges And Resistance
Drug Resistance
The emergence of antimalarial drug resistance poses a significant threat to effective malaria treatment and control efforts globally. Resistance has been observed across all classes of antimalarials, with a notable recent emergence of partial resistance to artemisinin, characterized by slower parasite clearance rates.[226.1] This resistance has critical implications, as it undermines the efficacy of artemisinin combination therapies (ACTs), which are the first-line treatment for uncomplicated falciparum malaria in endemic regions.[235.1] Historically, the failure of malaria eradication programs has led to the re-emergence of malaria and the spread of chloroquine-resistant parasites, particularly in Southeast Asia and South America. This spread has resulted in a significant increase in malaria-related mortality, particularly in Africa during the 1980s.[227.1] Currently, Plasmodium falciparum exhibits high resistance to chloroquine in most malaria-affected areas, and resistance to sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) has developed rapidly.[229.1] Furthermore, resistance to mefloquine has been documented in regions where it has been widely used, such as Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam, emerging within just six years of its deployment.[229.1] The global burden of malaria remains substantial, with over 600,000 deaths annually, primarily in sub-Saharan Africa, where drug resistance continues to escalate.[230.1] The complexity of artemisinin resistance mechanisms differs from those of other antimalarial drugs, as it does not involve a marked increase in in vitro IC50 values, which is typical for other resistant strains.[231.1] Instead, the proteostasis mechanisms underlying artemisinin resistance are more intricate, necessitating diverse approaches for assessment in laboratory studies.[232.1] In response to the challenges posed by drug resistance, the malaria research community is actively engaged in modifying existing treatments and discovering new drugs. This includes identifying novel validated drug targets and advancing chemistry resources to develop selective and potent small molecules.[237.1] The World Health Organization (WHO) plays a crucial role in this effort by developing standard protocols to monitor drug efficacy and resistance, providing technical support to countries, and compiling data into a global database.[238.1] Recent research highlights the potential of targeting epigenetic regulation in malaria to enhance the effectiveness of existing drugs and prevent the development of resistant strains.[244.1] Additionally, promising new drug formulations are under development, including a novel drug combination that has advanced to phase 3 trials, which may offer new hope in the fight against resistant malaria.[243.1] Overall, sustained efforts in drug development and innovative treatment strategies are essential to combat the growing threat of malaria drug resistance and achieve global malaria elimination goals.Future Directions
Research and Development
Research and development in malaria control is increasingly focused on innovative strategies and technologies aimed at reducing the burden of the disease. A cornerstone of current malaria treatment is Artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT), which has significantly improved treatment efficacy against both falciparum and non-falciparum malaria, making it suitable for all malaria variants.[261.1] However, the future of malaria control will likely depend on the development and deployment of a new generation of tools, including advanced vector control methods, improved diagnostics, and more effective antimalarial medicines.[263.1] Recent advancements in malaria prevention have underscored the significance of employing a variety of intervention strategies, including mass drug administration (MDA), vaccines, and monoclonal antibodies.[262.1] MDA is particularly recommended in regions with moderate to high transmission of Plasmodium falciparum, especially during emergency situations, as part of a comprehensive strategy to mitigate the disease burden.[262.1] In October 2023, the World Health Organization (WHO) included the R21/Matrix-M vaccine on its list of prequalified vaccines, highlighting its potential to meet the unmet demand for malaria immunization in endemic areas.[266.1] This vaccine recommendation follows guidance from the WHO's Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on Immunization (SAGE) and the Malaria Policy Advisory Group (MPAG).[266.1] Furthermore, the development of a pipeline of new malaria vaccine concepts and candidates may enhance immunization coverage and efficacy, representing a promising advancement in the field.[265.1] In recent years, genetic biocontrol approaches have gained prominence as effective strategies for combating malaria transmission, particularly through advancements in genetic engineering aimed at modifying mosquito populations to reduce their capacity to transmit the disease.[276.1] Among the most promising techniques are population suppression and replacement gene drives, which have rapidly advanced over the last decade. These methods include the use of Cas9-mediated gene drives for the population modification of malaria vector mosquitoes, such as Anopheles stephensi and Anopheles gambiae.[276.1] These gene drives can target specific genes, impairing the transmission of Plasmodium, the malaria-causing parasite, by modulating the mosquitoes' immune responses and enhancing anti-parasite effector molecules.[276.1] This innovative approach represents a significant evolution in vector control strategies, particularly in the context of increasing challenges posed by insecticide resistance.[276.1]Global Health Initiatives
Global health initiatives play a crucial role in the fight against malaria, particularly through collaborative efforts that leverage resources and expertise from various stakeholders. The US President’s Malaria Initiative (PMI) exemplifies a large-scale initiative where the US government collaborates with national governments and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to support malaria control activities across Africa. Such partnerships are essential as they bring together governments, NGOs, private sector companies, research organizations, and communities, aiming for a transformative impact on malaria control and eradication efforts globally.[270.1] Since the late 1990s, several initiatives and financing mechanisms have emerged to enhance global attention to malaria and support efforts to achieve international health goals. Notable among these is the Roll Back Malaria (RBM) Partnership to End Malaria, established in 1998 to coordinate malaria efforts among donor governments, UN agencies, international organizations, and affected countries. Additionally, the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, created in 2001, serves as an independent financing institution that provides grants to countries for addressing these critical health issues.[271.1] The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) has also made significant contributions through its International Centers of Excellence for Malaria Research (ICEMR). These centers work closely with malaria control programs to disseminate research findings that inform disease elimination strategies. A key focus of NIAID's malaria research program is to develop and strengthen sustainable research capacity in countries where malaria is endemic, thereby enhancing local capabilities to combat the disease.[272.1] Furthermore, the development of joint regional collaborative frameworks is essential for improving country-level impact and establishing future project and funding agreements among various parties involved in malaria control.[273.1] These frameworks are designed to facilitate cooperation and resource sharing, which are vital for the success of malaria initiatives.In this section:
References
[2] PDF — Learn how malaria parasites infect humans and mosquitoes through a series of stages. See the detailed illustration of the sporozoite, liver, blood, and mosquito stages of the malaria life cycle.
[3] Malaria: An Overview - PMC — Malaria is a global public health burden with an estimated 229 million cases reported worldwide in 2019. About 94% of the reported cases were recorded in the African region. About 200 different species of protozoa have been identified so far and
[4] Malaria - World Health Organization (WHO) — Malaria Malaria Malaria malariae, P. Vector control is a vital component of malaria control and elimination strategies as it is highly effective in preventing infection and reducing disease transmission. Regular monitoring of antimalarial drug efficacy is needed to inform treatment policies in malaria-endemic countries, and to ensure early detection of, and response to, drug resistance. Improved surveillance of malaria cases and deaths helps ministries of health determine which areas or population groups are most affected and enables countries to monitor changing disease patterns. Strong malaria surveillance systems also help countries design effective health interventions and evaluate the impact of their malaria control programmes. eliminating malaria in at least 35 countries by 2030
[5] Malaria: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment & Prevention — Malaria Malaria Malaria is a life-threatening illness caused by parasites that you get through the bite of an infected mosquito. If you’re traveling to an area where malaria is common, talk to a healthcare provider about ways you can prevent being infected. What is malaria? Malaria is a serious disease that spreads when you’re bitten by a mosquito infected by Plasmodium parasites. Where is malaria found? Antimalarial medications can treat malaria and clear the infection from your body, but it’s important to start treatment as soon as possible. If you’re traveling to an area where malaria is common, talk to a healthcare provider about ways you can prevent being infected.
[11] Socio-Economic Determinants and Malaria Risk: Assessing the Impact of ... — This review investigates the socio-economic determinants influencing malaria transmission, with a focus on poverty, housing conditions, and healthcare accessibility in high-incidence areas, and explores how these factors collectively exacerbate malaria risk and contribute to sustained disease transmission. Malaria continues to be a pressing public health issue, particularly in low-income
[12] The Economic Burden of Malaria - The Intolerable Burden of Malaria: A ... — Malaria and poverty are intimately connected. Controlling for factors such as tropical location, colonial history, and geographical isolation, countries with intensive malaria had income levels in 1995 of only 33% that of countries without malaria, whether or not the countries were in Africa. The high levels of malaria in poor countries are not mainly a consequence of poverty. Malaria is
[13] Malaria profile and socioeconomic predictors among under-five children ... — Background African region accounts for 95% of all malaria cases and 96% of malaria deaths with under-five children accounting for 80% of all deaths in the region. This study assessed the socioeconomic determinants of malaria prevalence and provide evidence on the socioeconomic profile of malaria infection among under-five children in 11 SSA countries. Methods This study used data from the 2010
[14] Improving socioeconomic status may reduce the burden of malaria in sub ... — However, the summary OR and the corresponding 95% CI values estimated in a meta-analysis after including four studies that reported the odds of Plasmodium infection among individuals who were living in houses with earth floor versus those living in houses with cement/stone floors (OR 2.63, 95% CI 0.94–4.33) changed to 1.94 (0.22–3.66) after removing the data by Ayele et al. However, the meta-regression analyses that controlled the effect of study design, study area, year of data collection, and sample size showed lack of relationship between the age of the study population group with the OR of Plasmodium infection reported in each individual study that examined the relationship of the roof or walls of a house, education level, occupation and wealth status with the prevalence or incidence of malaria (S4 Table).
[31] Effect of climate change on mosquito population and changing pattern of ... — As climate changes in the direction predicted by the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 1991), simulation experiments show a widespread increase in transmission potential of the malaria mosquito population and an extension of the areas conducive to malaria transmission.
[32] Climate Change and Malaria: A Call for Robust Analytics - PMC — Because malaria parasites are transmitted by mosquitoes, and because mosquito ecology and behavior are affected by the environment, the interactions between weather, mosquito ecology, climate change, and malaria transmission have been of longstanding interest . Here, we review and evaluate the evidence that has shaped science and
[36] Impact of climate change on global malaria distribution — Malaria causes a significant burden of disease at the global and regional level ().Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease caused by parasitic protozoans of the genus Plasmodium (vivax, malariae, ovale, knowlesi, and falciparum) and is transmitted by female mosquito vectors of the Anopheles species. The spatial limits of the distribution and seasonal activity are sensitive to climate
[51] History of the discovery of the malaria parasites and their vectors — With the discovery of bacteria by Antoni van Leeuwenhoek in 1676, and the incrimination of microorganisms as causes of infectious diseases and the development of the germ theory of infection by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch in 1878-1879, the search for the cause of malaria intensified.
[52] A history of malaria - The Lancet — Of all diseases, malaria is perhaps the one with the most subtle interplay with human history. It has long affected human beings, and has left its genetic mark on modern populations. Thalassaemia, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, sickle-cell trait, the Duffin antigen, and several other genetic variations owe their prevalence to the disease. The disease acted as a barrier to
[53] A Brief History of Malaria - Saving Lives, Buying Time - NCBI Bookshelf — From a historical perspective, there are several remarkable features to the story of qing-hao's “rediscovery” as a potent antimalarial: 1) the structure of the drug was unlike any other known biological compound at the time; 2) within a few short years Chinese scientists had studied its antimalarial activity from test tube to patient, identified its active structure, then synthesized more active derivatives; and 3) the entire antimalarial drug discovery program resulted from an initial appeal for help from Ho Chi Minh to Zhou En Lai during the Vietnam War. Today, artemisinin and other artemether-group drugs are the main line of defense against drug-resistant malaria in many areas of southeast Asia. Drug resistance of malaria parasites in Tanzania.
[54] (PDF) History of Malaria - ResearchGate — The history of malaria stretches from its prehistoric origin as a zoonotic disease in the primates of Africa through to. the 21st century. A widespread and potentially lethal human infectious
[64] Long-term transmission patterns and public health policies leading to ... — A descriptive ecological study was carried out using routinely collected malaria surveillance data. A preliminary temporal evaluation of malaria cases from 1884 to 2019 was conducted describing major environmental factors, historical events, public health policy changes and interventions that have influenced malaria transmission in Panamá.
[65] Evidence and strategies for malaria prevention and control: a ... — Public health strategies for malaria in endemic countries aim to prevent transmission of the disease and control the vector. This historical analysis considers the strategies for vector control developed during the first four decades of the twentieth century. In 1925, policies and technological advances were debated internationally for the first time after the outbreak of malaria in Europe
[66] History, Dynamics, and Public Health Importance of Malaria Parasite ... — In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the eradication of malaria seemed possible because the parasite does not have an animal reservoir and effective agents to interrupt transmission or to obtain a radical cure existed. On the basis of such observations, the World Health Organization (WHO) spearheaded projects for malaria eradication by using indoor residual spraying and large mass drug
[84] The global distribution and population at risk of malaria: past ... — The aim of this review was to use geographic information systems in combination with historical maps to quantify the anthropogenic impact on the distribution of malaria in the 20th century. The nature of the cartographic record enabled global and regional patterns in the spatial limits of malaria to be investigated at six intervals between 1900 and 2002. Contemporaneous population surfaces
[85] The global distribution and population at risk of malaria: past ... — The nature of the cartographic record enabled global and regional patterns in the spatial limits of malaria to be investigated at six intervals between 1900 and 2002. Contemporaneous population surfaces also allowed changes in the numbers of people living in areas of malaria risk to be quantified.
[87] Mapping the global prevalence, incidence, and mortality of — The unprecedented investment in malaria control since the early 2000s has averted an enormous amount of malaria burden. However, case incidence rates in Africa have flattened, and with a rapidly growing population at risk, the number of P falciparum cases in Africa, and thus globally, is now comparable to levels before the surge of investment. Outside Africa progress against malaria morbidity
[88] Mapping the global prevalence, incidence, and mortality of Plasmodium ... — Background Malaria remains a leading cause of illness and death globally, with countries in sub-Saharan Africa bearing a disproportionate burden. Global high-resolution maps of malaria prevalence, incidence, and mortality are crucial for tracking spatially heterogeneous progress against the disease and to inform strategic malaria control efforts.
[97] Fight against drug-resistant malaria in critical new phase: 'We are in ... — On World Malaria Day 2023, the global fight against malaria has hit a critical point in Africa. Recent studies have confirmed that malaria parasites resistant to artemisinin have emerged in Rwanda, Uganda and the Horn of Africa. Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) are the first line treatment for malaria and there is no immediate replacement available. The loss of ACTs will put
[100] Drug Development Strategies for Malaria: With the Hope for New ... — However, the development of drug resistance and cross-resistance against most of the antimalarials (including atovaquone, sulfadoxine, pyrimethamine, and mefloquine, and even more recently the most efficacious artemisinin derivatives) and the declining efficacy of combinations in clinical practice is a big hurdle to case management . Therefore, there is an urgent need for the development of new therapeutic agents/drug combinations, which are effective in tackling drug resistance and have higher efficacy with faster action for the treatment of malaria, especially in developing countries. Although a marked reduction in malaria incidence and mortality has been reported in recent years due to the introduction of ACTs in antimalarial policy, the development of drug resistance against most of the antimalarials, especially artemisinin derivatives, is an alarming situation.
[101] Emerging public health strategies in malaria control: innovations and ... — This review aims to synthesize current knowledge on emerging public health strategies in malaria control, their policy implications, and the need for climate change adaptation. The search strategy was designed to capture a broad range of studies, reports, and reviews on malaria control, technological advancements, vector control methods, policy implications, and climate change adaptation. Studies focusing on technological advancements in malaria control, novel vector control methods, policy implications, and climate change adaptation. Policymakers should support innovative approaches, such as climate-smart agriculture, ecosystem-based vector control, and remote sensing technologies, to enhance the effectiveness and sustainability of malaria control in a changing climate. Furthermore, novel vector control methods, including genetic modification of mosquitoes and biological control, hold promise for reducing malaria transmission and overcoming challenges such as insecticide resistance.
[102] Innovative strategies and challenges mosquito-borne disease control ... — Global warming and climate change have increased the movement of malaria into highland areas where cold temperatures used to less prevail less often (Tchouassi et al., 2022; Matute and Cooper, 2023). Increased malaria transmission has been noted in locations where high temperatures are suitable for Anopheles mosquitoes.
[103] Projected shifts in the distribution of malaria vectors due to climate ... — Climate change is postulated to alter the distribution and abundance of species which serve as vectors for pathogens and is thus expected to affect the transmission of infectious, vector-borne diseases such as malaria. The ability to project and therefore, to mitigate the risk of potential expansion of infectious diseases requires an understanding of how vectors respond to environmental change
[104] Advances and roadblocks in the treatment of malaria - PubMed — The deployment of artesunate for severe malaria and the artemisinin combination therapies (ACTs) for uncomplicated malaria has been a major advance in antimalarial therapeutics. These drugs have reduced treated mortality, accelerated recovery and reduced treatment failure rates and transmission from …
[106] Community engagement approaches for malaria prevention, control and ... — Introduction: Globally malaria programmes have adopted approaches to community engagement (ACE) to design and deliver malaria interventions. This scoping review aimed to understand, map, and synthesise intervention activities guided by ACE and implemented by countries worldwide for the prevention, control and elimination of malaria.
[107] Community Involvement in Malaria Control and Prevention — Malaria prevention must go hand in hand with community participation. Unless individuals in communities see the merits of preventing the illness, even the best-designed prevention strategies might not be used. It is necessary to understand how a community perceives febrile illness, the importance placed on it in people's belief systems regarding illness in general, and what existing behaviors
[108] Bridging the gap to malaria vaccination in Africa: Challenges and ... — Bridging the gap to malaria vaccination in Africa: Challenges and opportunities - ScienceDirect Bridging the gap to malaria vaccination in Africa: Challenges and opportunities The introduction of malaria vaccines, such as RTS,S/AS01 and R21/Matrix-M™, brings hope to the continent, but challenges persist in achieving widespread coverage. It calls for cooperative efforts, better data utilisation, improved diagnostics, and comprehensive interventions to reduce the prevalence of malaria and improve public health in Africa. By emphasising the significance of education, knowledge, targeted awareness campaigns, and strategic communication in the malaria vaccine rollout, we can bridge the gaps in malaria vaccination in Africa. Next article in issue Malaria vaccination Recommended articles No articles found. For all open access content, the Creative Commons licensing terms apply.
[109] Current challenges and proposed solutions to the effective ... — Background: The Malaria Vaccine Implementation Program, coordinated by the World Health Organization, intended to initiate the roll-out of the RTS, S/AS01 malaria vaccine in 3 sub-Saharan African countries in 2018. With sub-optimal implementation, the effectiveness of this vaccine in routine clinical use could be significantly lower than its measured efficacy in randomized trials.
[110] Integration of the RTS,S/AS01 malaria vaccine into the Essential ... — Challenges relating to the nature of RTS,S/AS01 implementation as a pilot were also reported by health managers and providers during RTS,S/AS01 introduction in Ghana. 22 Inadequate sensitisation and training, and challenges with the vaccine schedule and eligibility criteria, were similarly identified. 22 Community education on immunisation for
[111] Malaria Treatment Landscape: Current Trends and Future Directions — Malaria control relies partly on effective case treatment, with Artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) being a cornerstone strategy. ACTs have revolutionized malaria treatment by offering remarkable efficacy and bolstering disease control efforts. They demonstrate exceptional effectiveness against both falciparum and non-falciparum malaria, rendering them suitable for all malaria variants
[112] Recent approaches in the drug research and development of novel ... — The availability of treatment alternatives is limited, and the rise of resistant parasite types has posed a significant challenge to malaria treatment. To prevent a public health disaster, novel antimalarial agents with single-dosage therapies, extensive curative capability, and new mechanisms are urgently needed.
[113] Fight against drug-resistant malaria in critical new phase: 'We are in ... — Fight against drug-resistant malaria in critical new phase: 'We are in danger of losing our current antimalarial drugs to resistance.' | University of Oxford To that end, the Development of Triple Artemisinin-based Combination Therapies (DeTACT) trial is studying in eight African and two Asian countries two new TACTs - Artemether+lumefantrine+amodiaquine and Artesunate+piperaquine+mefloquine - to generate evidence that they are safe and effective malaria therapies. DeTACT will also deliver a product to market, and engage with national and global policy makers and stakeholders to discuss the potential position of TACTs in the mix of antimalarial drugs,' said University of Oxford Professor Arjen Dondorp, DeTACT project Principal Investigator.
[114] Team Science Leads to Antimalarial Drug Discovery — Researchers have discovered a new chemical compound, MED6-189, that is a strong inhibitor of parasites that are resistant to commonly used antimalarial drugs. ... according to the World Health Organization's World Malaria Report 2023. ... identifying and validating promising new antimalarial leads requires an all-hands-on-deck collaborative
[123] Antimalarial Drug Resistance and Novel Targets for Antimalarial Drug ... — Glucose transporter PfHT1, kinases (Plasmodium kinome), food vacuole, apicoplast, cysteine proteases, and aminopeptidases are the novel targets for the development of new antimalarial drugs. Therefore, this review summarizes the antimalarial drug resistance and novel targets of antimalarial drugs.
[124] Recent Progress in the Development of New Antimalarial Drugs with Novel ... — Several studies showed that the efficacies of most antimalarial agents compromised by the emergency of drug-resistant Plasmodium species.4 Resistance reported for nearly all available antimalarial agents that reinforced the urgent need to develop new antimalarial agents against existing validated targets, as well as to search for novel targets.5 The development of a novel antimalarial agent that acts toward both transmissible gametocytes stages and the intraerythrocytic proliferative asexual, in particular, those of resistant parasite species, is urgently required.6 Several enzymes, ion channels, transporters, interacting molecules in red blood cell (RBC) invasion, and molecules responsible for oxidative stress in the parasite, lipid metabolism, and degradation of hemoglobin are promising novel targets to develop new antimalarial drugs against rapidly mutating malarial parasites.7
[136] PDF — In this year's World malaria report, WHO reflects on key milestones that have shaped the global response to the disease over the last 2 decades - a period of unprecedented success in malaria control that saw 1.5 billion cases averted and 7.6 million lives saved.
[137] The 2023 WHO World malaria report - The Lancet Microbe — The estimated number of global malaria cases in 2022 exceeded pre-COVID-19 pandemic levels in 2019, according to WHO's 2023 World malaria report. Several threats to the malaria global response are highlighted in the report, including climate change.
[138] World malaria report 2024 - World Health Organization (WHO) — World malaria report 2024 Global Health Estimates Reports Global Malaria Programme/ Reports/ World malaria report 2024 World malaria report 2024 Each year, the World malaria report serves as a vital tool to assess global progress and gaps in the fight against malaria. ### World malaria report 2024 New data from the WHO reveal that an estimated 2.2 billion cases of malaria and 12.7 million deaths have been averted since 2000, but the disease remains a serious global health threat, particularly in the WHO African Region. According to WHO’s latest World malaria report, there were an estimated 263 million cases and 597 000 malaria deaths worldwide in 2023. 11 December 2024 News release Reinvigorated global efforts needed to curb rising malaria threat Global Malaria Programme
[154] Influence of environmental, geographic, socio-demographic, and ... — There is evidence to support that malaria occurrence, transmission, and seasonality are influenced by environmental (e.g., isothermality), socio-economic (e.g., human population density), and health factors (e.g., access to health services) 10. Yet, the influence of these interacting elements on malaria transmission dynamics is often not well
[155] Socio-demographic factors, housing characteristics, and clinical ... — Malaria transmission in Ghana is however heterogenous-with pockets of high transmission affecting the poorest populations typically living in rural areas . Over the past two decades, Ghana's urban population has more than doubled, rising from 8 to 17 million owing to increased population growth and migration .
[156] The demographics of human and malaria movement and migration patterns ... — Increased investment in malaria control and international donor support in recent years has led to reductions in transmission, morbidity and mortality in many malaria endemic parts of the world [1-4].The movement of malaria parasites, primarily through the movement of infected humans, is important for successful intervention strategies across the full range of transmission intensities.
[157] Population Density, Climate Variables and Poverty Synergistically ... — A comparison to the transmission dynamics of falciparum malaria reinforces the conclusion that the spatio-temporal patterns of risk are strongly driven by extrinsic factors. Conclusion/significance: Climate forcing and socio-economic heterogeneity act synergistically at local scales on the population dynamics of urban malaria in this city. The
[166] Malaria - World Health Organization (WHO) — Globally, in 2023, the number of deaths was estimated at 597 000, with a mortality rate of 13.7 per 100 000. The WHO African Region continues to carry the heaviest burden of malaria, accounting for an estimated 94% of malaria cases and 95% of malaria deaths worldwide in 2023; 76% of all deaths in this region were among children aged under 5
[168] WHO world malaria report 2024 - The Lancet Microbe — WHO estimates that 263 million malaria cases (95% CI 238 million to 294 million) occurred globally in 2023, equating to an incidence of 60·4 cases per 1000 population at risk, increasing from 58·6 cases per 1000 population at risk in 2022. 94% of all global cases in 2023 occurred in Africa, with 52% of the global burden shared between just five African countries—Nigeria, DR Congo, Uganda
[169] World Malaria Report 2023: What You Need to Know — About Malaria About Malaria In 2022, the global malaria community not only faced continued COVID-19 disruptions, but also a host of other global threats, including drug and insecticide resistance, conflict and climate-induced humanitarian crises in 41 malaria-endemic countries, and an invasive new mosquito species in the African continent. In 2022, 254 million insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs) were distributed worldwide in malaria-endemic countries (93% in sub-Saharan Africa). Continued drug and insecticide resistance, conflicts and climate crises in dozens of malaria-endemic countries, surging rates of human displacement, invasive new mosquito species, and other challenges are testing the resilience of malaria programs around the world and threatening long-term progress towards eradication. About Malaria About Malaria What is Malaria?
[170] Climate change and malaria: predictions becoming reality — WHO notes other ways in which climate change can impact malaria. For example, loss of livelihoods because of climate change can "lead to large-scale population displacement—and this, in turn, could lead to more malaria transmission in some places" if people with low immunity to malaria move to malaria-endemic areas, the health agency told The Lancet.
[172] The Effect of Climate Change on Malaria - News-Medical.net — Now, as the topic of climate change heats up, scientists and global health organizations are emphasizing the importance of implementing strategies to curb climate change in order to prevent an increase in many health problems, including the spread of infectious diseases such as malaria. Research and funding into malaria need to continue to provide current and improved treatment to those who are most vulnerable and to monitor how the distribution of the disease is changing, be it through climate change, zoonotic changes (such as the malaria species that has developed in monkeys) or antimalarial drug resistance. Retrieved on February 16, 2025 from https://www.news-medical.net/health/The-Effect-of-Climate-Change-on-Malaria.aspx. <https://www.news-medical.net/health/The-Effect-of-Climate-Change-on-Malaria.aspx>. https://www.news-medical.net/health/The-Effect-of-Climate-Change-on-Malaria.aspx. News-Medical, viewed 16 February 2025, https://www.news-medical.net/health/The-Effect-of-Climate-Change-on-Malaria.aspx.
[174] Potential impact of global climate change on malaria risk - PMC — The biological activity and geographic distribution of the malarial parasite and its vector are sensitive to climatic influences, especially temperature and precipitation. ... Assessment of the potential impact of global climate change on the incidence of malaria suggests a widespread increase of risk due to expansion of the areas suitable for
[183] Implications of insecticide resistance for malaria vector control with ... — In 2012, WHO released the Global Plan for Insecticide Resistance Management in Malaria Vectors 9 to slow the development of insecticide resistance. This plan has been a challenge for national programmes to implement because of its primary focus on switching chemical classes for indoor residual spraying. 4 , 10
[185] Current vector control challenges in the fight against malaria — The effective and eco-friendly control of Anopheles vectors plays a key role in any malaria management program. Integrated Vector Management (IVM) suggests making use of the full range of vector control tools available. The strategies for IVM require novel technologies to control outdoor transmissio …
[186] Emerging public health strategies in malaria control: innovations and ... — This review aims to synthesize current knowledge on emerging public health strategies in malaria control, their policy implications, and the need for climate change adaptation. The search strategy was designed to capture a broad range of studies, reports, and reviews on malaria control, technological advancements, vector control methods, policy implications, and climate change adaptation. Studies focusing on technological advancements in malaria control, novel vector control methods, policy implications, and climate change adaptation. Policymakers should support innovative approaches, such as climate-smart agriculture, ecosystem-based vector control, and remote sensing technologies, to enhance the effectiveness and sustainability of malaria control in a changing climate. Furthermore, novel vector control methods, including genetic modification of mosquitoes and biological control, hold promise for reducing malaria transmission and overcoming challenges such as insecticide resistance.
[187] Global Malaria Programme - World Health Organization (WHO) — Its work is guided by the "Global technical strategy for malaria 2016–2030" adopted by the World Health Assembly in May 2015 and updated in 2021. WHO global database on insecticide resistance in malaria vectors WHO currently recommends deployment of either insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) or indoor residual spraying (IRS) for malaria vector control in most areas at risk of malaria. Malaria vector control requires periodic collection and interpretation of data on local vector species, the potential invasion by vectors from other geographical areas, their susceptibility to insecticides and vector and human behaviours. The WHO Malaria Threats Map is an interactive data visualization platform that presents the latest status of the 4 major biological threats to malaria control and elimination, including insecticide resistance in malaria vectors, and invasive malaria vector species.
[226] Antimalarial Drug Resistance - an overview - ScienceDirect — Antimalarial drug resistance. Emergence of antimalarial drug resistance threatens effective antimalarial drug treatment, malaria control, and elimination. It has been observed for all antimalarials and, more recently, also for the artemisinins. Artemisinin resistance appears to be "partial", is characterized by a slower parasite clearance, and has emerged (like all other resistances
[227] Antimalarial drug resistance: An overview - PMC - PubMed Central (PMC) — The failure of these eradication programs led to re-emergence of malaria and spread of CQ-resistant parasite in Southeast Asia and South America. Due to the lack of potent and affordable drug for malaria treatment, the spread of CQ-resistant parasite to Africa around 1980s claimed 2-3-fold increase in malaria-related death.[5,6
[229] Antimalarial drug resistance - PMC — P. falciparum is now highly resistant to chloroquine in most malaria-affected areas. Resistance to SP is also widespread and has developed much more rapidly. Resistance to mefloquine is confined only to those areas where it has been used widely (Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam) but has arisen within six years of systematic deployment ().The epidemiology of resistance in Plasmodium vivax is
[230] Drug Resistance in Malaria: Challenges and Strategies — Even today, malaria remains a major global health problem, predominantly in sub-Saharan Africa, where the disease causes tremendous human suffering and loss of life. And malaria parasites are becoming increasingly resistant to antimalarial drugs. With the strengthening of drug resistance, the prospect of malaria control is eroded; antimalarial treatment is less effective with a rising number
[231] Protecting future antimalarials from the trap of resistance: Lessons ... — Artemisinin resistance is qualitatively different from resistance to other antimalarial drugs like chloroquine. In the case of the former there is no change in the in vitro IC 50 between the resistant strain and the sensitive strain while in case of the latter, resistance is associated with a marked increase in vitro IC 50 .
[232] Mechanisms of artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum malaria - PMC — Mechanism of artemisinin resistance. Proteostasis mechanisms of artemisinin resistance are more complex than amplification/mutation of a transporter or enzyme seen in the case of resistance to other antimalarials [13-15]. Consequently, multiple approaches and measurements have been used to assess artemisinin resistance in laboratory studies.
[235] Antimalarial Drug Resistance: A Threat to Malaria Elimination — Increasing antimalarial drug resistance once again threatens effective antimalarial drug treatment, malaria control, and elimination. Artemisinin combination therapies (ACTs) are first-line treatment for uncomplicated falciparum malaria in all endemic countries, yet partial resistance to artemisinins has emerged in the Greater Mekong Subregion.
[237] Efforts Made to Eliminate Drug-Resistant Malaria and Its Challenges — As a result, the malaria research community is working on the modification of existing treatments as well as the discovery and development of new drugs to counter the resistance challenges. So, discovery of enough number of novel validated drug targets with simultaneous advancement of chemistry resources, necessary to produce appropriately selective and potent small molecules to test therapeutic hypotheses, is crucial to successfully develop new drugs effective against resistant parasites . In the face of resistance against first-line antimalarial drugs and other related bottlenecks, sustained effort in developing new malaria tools is critical to meet the goals of malaria elimination and eradication. Identification and Validation of Novel Drug Targets for the Treatment of Plasmodium falciparum Malaria: New Insights.
[238] Monitoring malaria drug efficacy and resistance — As part of its normative role, WHO develops standard protocols to monitor antimalarial drug efficacy, prevention and resistance, and provides technical and financial support to countries to implement these protocols. The results of these studies are included in a global database that is translated into the Malaria Threats Map. These studies
[243] Novartis, MMV take new malaria drug combination into phase 3 — Novartis and the non-profit Medicines for Malaria Venture (MMV) have advanced a novel drug combination for malaria into a phase 3 programme, raising hopes of a regimen that could be used to treat
[244] A Next-Generation Malaria Drug: New Epigenetic Inhibitor Kills the ... — "Malaria is one of the most adaptive diseases we face," observes Längst. Targeting its epigenetic regulation could pave the way for increasing the effectiveness of existing drugs, for example, or preventing the development of resistant parasites. "The study underscores the importance of integrating epigenetics into malaria research.
[261] Malaria Treatment Landscape: Current Trends and Future Directions — Malaria control relies partly on effective case treatment, with Artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) being a cornerstone strategy. ACTs have revolutionized malaria treatment by offering remarkable efficacy and bolstering disease control efforts. They demonstrate exceptional effectiveness against both falciparum and non-falciparum malaria, rendering them suitable for all malaria variants
[262] Updates on Malaria Epidemiology and Prevention Strategies — The objective of this review was to provide an update on recent malaria epidemiology, both globally and in non-endemic areas, to identify the current distribution and repercussions of genetically diverse Plasmodium species and to focus on recent intervention and prevention tools such as vaccine development and implementation and possible benefits of other strategies such as mass drug administration (MDA) . Malaria prevention includes several strategies such as vector control, preventive chemotherapies, mass drug administration (MDA), vaccines and more recently, the use of monoclonal antibodies. MDA is recommended together with other malaria control strategies to reduce the burden of disease in areas with moderate to high transmission of P falciparum, including during emergency settings. Trends in imported malaria during the COVID-19 pandemic, Spain (+Redivi Collaborative Network) J Travel Med. 2022;29:1–6.
[263] Prospects for new interventions - World Health Organization (WHO) — Boosting investments in the development and deployment of a new generation of malaria tools is key to achieving the 2030 global malaria targets. Future progress in the fight against malaria will likely be shaped by technological advances and innovations in new tools, such as new vector control approaches, improved diagnostics and more effective antimalarial medicines. At the September 2019 Forum on Rising to the Challenge of Malaria Eradication, Dr Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, WHO Director-General, called on the global health community to ramp up investment in the research and development (R&D) of innovative and transformative tools and approaches. Should these tools demonstrate efficacy in controlling the disease, WHO will formulate new policy recommendations or amend existing ones to support their deployment in malaria-affected countries.
[265] Malaria vaccines: a new era of prevention and control — The 2023 World Malaria Report ... The parasite life cycle provides a framework to understand malaria vaccine approaches ... A pipeline of new malaria vaccine concepts and candidates may increase
[266] Advances in Malaria Vaccines: Candidates, Strategies ... - LinkedIn — In October 2023, the WHO included the R21/Matrix-M vaccine on its list of prequalified vaccines, emphasising its role in addressing the unmet demand for malaria immunisation in endemic regions
[270] Collaborative Approaches to Malaria Prevention: Partnerships — Collaborative Approaches to Malaria Prevention: Partnerships Key Collaborative Approaches in Malaria Prevention The US President’s Malaria Initiative (PMI) is another large-scale initiative in which the US government works together with national governments and NGOs to support malaria control activities in Africa. There can be no panacea in the war on malaria, but collaborations that bring governments, nongovernmental organizations, private sector companies, research organizations, and communities together are crucial to leverage resources, use expertise and influence in transformative ways, to achieve the kind of large-scale impact that Zanzibar, PMI, and IVCC all demonstrated. We must all continue to support and build more and stronger collaborations to achieve the goals of control and eradication of malaria globally.
[271] The President's Malaria Initiative and Other U.S. Government ... - KFF — Since the late 1990s, new initiatives and financing mechanisms have helped increase attention to malaria and contributed to efforts to achieve global goals; these include the RBM Partnership to End Malaria, a global framework established in 1998 for coordinating malaria efforts among donor governments, major UN agencies, international organizations, and affected countries, among others; and the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria (Global Fund), an independent, international financing institution established in 2001 that provides grants to countries to address TB, HIV, and malaria (see the KFF fact sheet on the U.S. and the Global Fund).18
[272] Malaria Strategic Partnerships and Research Capacity — Malaria Strategic Partnerships and Research Capacity | NIAID: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Research Research Funded by NIAID Information for Researchers Information for Researchers Information for Researchers Information for Researchers NIAID's Research Approach Why NIAID Is Researching Zika Virus NIAID-Funded Research News For Researchers NIAID-Funded Research News The ICEMRs have been working closely with malaria control programs to inform them of their research findings that have implications for disease elimination. One of the key elements to the NIAID malaria research program is to develop and strengthen sustainable research capacity in disease-endemic countries. Included in the World Malaria Day 2024 news release, information about NIAID’s International Centers of Excellence for Malaria Research (ICEMR) and NIAID-funded Genomic Centers for Infectious Diseases.
[273] PDF — development of joint regional specific collaborative frameworks to improve country level impact and future project/funding agreements as and when agreed between the Parties. 2. Principles The Parties enter into this Framework cognizant of, and pursuant to, the following principles, which will govern all engagement between the organizations:
[276] Gene drives: an alternative approach to malaria control? — A brief history of population suppression and replacement gene drives in mosquitoes, rapid advancement of the field over the last decade and how genetic modification fits into the current scope of vector control are described. Mechanisms of alternative vector control by genetic modification to modulate mosquitoes’ immune responses and anti-parasite effector molecules as part of a combinational strategy to combat malaria are considered. Genetic control of mosquitoes using gene drives Highly efficient Cas9-mediated gene drive for population modification of the malaria vector mosquito Anopheles stephensi. Cas9-mediated gene-editing in the malaria mosquito Anopheles stephensi by ReMOT control. A population modification gene drive targeting both Saglin and Lipophorin impairs Plasmodium transmission in Anopheles mosquitoes. Cas9-mediated maternal effect and derived resistance alleles in a gene-drive strain of the African malaria vector mosquito, Anopheles gambiae.