• Force-velocity and energetics patterns in muscle-driven locomotion bridge contraction science with gait biomechanics, showing speed-dependent work across walking and running [2], [4], [7], [13], [16].

• Muscle contraction physics and tissue properties unify elasticity, viscosity, and excitation–contraction coupling across vertebrate and invertebrate muscles, highlighting shared mechano-physical principles [5], [8], [11], [12], [15], [17], [18].

• Vertebrate locomotion biomechanics and joint morphology are analyzed via joint kinematics, limb architecture, and developmental morphology, linking knee/foot mechanics to quadrupedal gait and tetrapod limb evolution [2], [3], [6], [10], [14], [19], [20].

• Invertebrate neuromuscular control as model systems for locomotion: insect leg motor mechanism and flight muscle excitation with crustacean muscle properties illuminate fundamental motor actuation principles [8], [11], [15], [17].