• Biomechanical modeling and energy-flow principles unify muscle function and locomotion across species, detailing force-velocity, power, and work with gait and energy exchange as core constructs [3], [4], [6], [7], [10], [15], [17].

• Neurophysiological control of movement emphasizes motor unit activation, reflex modulation, and postural schemes, connecting voluntary contraction to reflex and posture coordination [2], [12], [13], [19].

• Postural regulation and gait mechanics across postures reveal integrated cardiovascular and musculoskeletal adjustments, including foot axis and leg energy during walking [5], [14], [16], [20].

• Measurement and instrumentation approaches underpin quantitative biomechanics, from external force in walking to sophisticated monitoring tools like ballistocardiographs [8], [16].

• Cross-species locomotion studies provide translational insights, using mammalian locomotion and rat hind-limb experiments to inform human movement theory [2], [9], [10], [17].