Co-Removal of Perfluorooctanoic Acid and Nitrate from Water by Coupling Pd Catalysis with Enzymatic Biotransformation

Abstract

PFAS (poly- and per-fluorinated alkyl substances) represent a large family of recalcitrant organic compounds that are widely used and pose serious threats to human and ecosystem health. Here, palladium (Pd⁰)-catalyzed defluorination and microbiological mineralization were combined in a denitrifying H₂-based membrane biofilm reactor to remove co-occurring perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and nitrate. The combined process, i.e., Pd-biofilm, enabled continuous removal of ∼4 mmol/L nitrate and ∼1 mg/L PFOA, with 81% defluorination of PFOA. Metagenome analysis identified bacteria likely responsible for biodegradation of partially defluorinated PFOA: <i>Dechloromonas</i> sp. CZR5, <i>Kaistella koreensis</i>, <i>Ochrobacterum anthropic</i>, and <i>Azospira</i> sp. I13. High-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry and metagenome analyses revealed that the presence of nitrate promoted microbiological oxidation of partially defluorinated PFOA. Taken together, the results point to PFOA-oxidation pathways that began with PFOA adsorption to Pd⁰, which enabled catalytic generation of partially or fully defluorinated fatty acids and stepwise oxidation and defluorination by the bacteria. This study documents how combining catalysis and microbiological transformation enables the simultaneous removal of PFOA and nitrate.