One-Step Construction of Closed Pores Enabling High Plateau Capacity Hard Carbon Anodes for Sodium-Ion Batteries: Closed-Pore Formation and Energy Storage Mechanisms

Abstract

Closed pores play a crucial role in improving the low-voltage (<0.1 V) plateau capacity of hard carbon anodes for sodium-ion batteries (SIBs). However, the lack of simple and effective closed-pore construction strategies, as well as the unclear closed-pore formation mechanism, has severely hindered the development of high plateau capacity hard carbon anodes. Herein, we present an effective closed-pore construction strategy by one-step pyrolysis of zinc gluconate (ZG) and elucidate the corresponding mechanism of closed-pore formation. The closed-pore formation mechanism during the pyrolysis of ZG mainly involves (i) the precipitation of ZnO nanoparticles and the ZnO etching on carbon under 1100 °C to generate open pores of 0.45-4 nm and (ii) the development of graphitic domains and the shrinkage of the partial open pores at 1100-1500 °C to convert the open pores to closed pores. Benefiting from the considerable closed-pore content and suitable microstructure, the optimized hard carbon achieves an ultrahigh reversible specific capacity of 481.5 mA h g^-1 and an extraordinary plateau capacity of 389 mA h g^-1 for use as the anode of SIBs. Additionally, some in situ and ex situ characterizations demonstrate that the high-voltage slope capacity and the low-voltage plateau capacity stem from the adsorption of Na⁺ at the defect sites and Na-cluster formation in closed pores, respectively.