Nanoscale Measurements of Charge Transfer at Cocatalyst/Semiconductor Interfaces in BiVO₄ Particle Photocatalysts

Abstract

Semiconductor photocatalyst particles convert solar energy to fuels like H₂. The particles are often assumed to provide crystalline-facet-dependent electron-hole separation. A common strategy is to deposit a hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) electrocatalyst on electron-selective facets and an oxygen evolution reaction (OER) electrocatalyst on hole-selective facets. A precise understanding of how charge-carrier-selective contacts emerge and how they are rationally designed, however, is missing. Using a combination of <i>ex situ</i> and <i>in situ</i> conducting atomic force microscopy (AFM) experiments and new ionomer/catalyst-semiconductor test structures, we show how heterogeneity in charge-carrier selectivity can be measured at the nanoscale. We discover that the presence of the water/electrolyte interface is critical to induce hole selectivity between the CoO_<i>x</i> water-oxidation catalyst and the BiVO₄ light absorber. pH-dependent measurements suggest that negative surface charge on the semiconductor is central to inducing hole selectivity. The work also demonstrates a new approach to control local pH and introduce water using thin-film ionomers compatible with conductive AFM measurements.