Design and Fabrication of a Gas Sensor Based on a Polypyrrole/Silver Nanoparticle Film for the Detection of Ammonia in Exhaled Breath of COVID-19 Patients Suffering from Acute Kidney Injury

Abstract

One of the serious complications of COVID-19 is acute kidney injury (AKI), leading to a decrease in kidney function and even death. The concentration of ammonia (NH₃) in the exhaled breath (EB) of COVID-19 patients suffering from AKI symptoms will be significantly increased. In this work, the detection of breath NH₃ was performed at gold interdigital electrodes modified with a soluble polypyrrole microparticle and silver nanoparticle film (Au-IDEs/S-PPyMPs/AgNPs) as a noninvasive chemiresistor gas sensor. The response behavior of unmodified and modified gas sensors toward NH₃ and other interfering compounds was studied. The Au-IDEs/S-PPyMPs/AgNPs exhibited NH₃ detection in the linear dynamic range of 1.00-19.23 ppm, with a limit of detection of 0.12 ppm. Finally, the fabricated gas sensor was used to monitor the NH₃ concentration in the EB of COVID-19 patients suffering from AKI symptoms. For this purpose, the gas sensor was validated in 19 EB samples (seven COVID-19-positive patients, four COVID-19-negative patients, and eight post-COVID-19 patients). The gas sensor was directly exposed to the EB samples, followed by recording the changes in electrical resistance via a low-cost digital multimeter. The sensing mechanism was explained as the interaction between breath NH₃ and sensing materials. The breath NH₃ concentrations have a desirable correlation (<i>R</i>² = 0.8463) with the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) values in COVID-19-positive patients. The fabricated gas sensor can distinguish COVID-19-positive patients suffering from AKI symptoms from COVID-19-negative patients and post-COVID-19 patients. The present work can pave the way for the development of a simple and efficient analytical approach for COVID-19 patients with AKI without the need for sample pretreatment.