A knowledge-based approach to planning with incomplete information and sensing

Abstract

Native American hawkweeds are mainly mountainous species that are distributed all over the New World. They are severely understudied with respect to their origin, colonization of the vast distribution area, and species relationships. Here, we attempt to reconstruct the evolutionary history of the group by applying seven molecular markers (plastid, nuclear ribosomal and low-copy genes). Phylogenetic analyses revealed that <i>Chionoracium</i> is a subgenus of the mainly Eurasian genus <i>Hieracium</i>, which originated from eastern European hawkweeds about 1.58-2.24 million years ago. Plastid DNA suggested a single origin of all <i>Chionoracium</i> species. They colonized the New World via Beringia and formed several distinct lineages in North America. Via one Central American lineage, the group colonized South America and radiated into more than a hundred species within about 0.8 million years, long after the closure of the Isthmus of Panama and the most recent uplift of the Andes. Despite some incongruences shown by different markers, most of them revealed the same crown groups of closely related taxa, which were, however, largely in conflict with traditional sectional classifications. We provide a basic framework for further elucidation of speciation patterns. A thorough taxonomic revision of <i>Hieracium</i> subgen. <i>Chionoracium</i> is recommended.