Do wild ungulates experience higher stress with humans than with large carnivores?

Abstract

Predation is a major selective pressure for prey; however, whether it evokes stronger stress response relative to anthropogenic factors in wild populations of animals is not clear. We studied the stress levels in red deer and roe deer in 6 populations exposed to potentially different levels of stress. We showed that stress levels in wild ungulate populations are lower and less variable in areas with large carnivores than in carnivore-free areas where human-related factors predominate.