Households headed by women and urban poverty in Brazil.

Abstract

Survey data on households headed by women in Belo Horizonte Brazil were used as the basis for an analysis of the relationship of household structure human capital endowment such as education and earning capacities. The data used were obtained from a survey of a representative sample of 2445 households in the Belo Horizonte metropolitan area in 1972. 158 of the 2445 households consisted of a single individual. To avoid distortion this discussion is limited to the remining 2287 households with 2 or more individuals. 3 household income classes were utilized: the poor representing 30% of all households; low-income families representing 46% of all households; and middle/upper-income classes representing 24% of households. 379 (16.6%) of the households were headed by women. Households headed by women show a relatively higher incidence of poverty with 44.9% falling below the poverty line compared with 27.4% of the households headed by males. The proportion of poor woman-headed households was the lowest for households headed by single women -- 36%. Of the 261 households headed by married separated and widowed women the poverty group accounts for 49%. 60% of the women in the widow group live at poverty level. A substantial proportion of the female heads of poor households are in the working ages i.e. 25-59. When single person households are excluded 80% of female household heads fall in that age group. Of these 47% are poor. A principal finding of the 1976 analysis of the poor and low-income groups was that low-income households although similar in many respects to their poor counterparts were able to break through the poverty threshold because of the added earnings of a secondary worker. Unearned income is more important for the separated/widowed group. Females tend to outnumber males in most households headed by women but in low-income households the proportion of male secondary earners (60%) is about double that of poor households suggesting that male secondary workers make an important difference in the income status of these households. A major part of the disadvantaged earnings position of working female heads of household derives from a comparative lack of access to formal sector jobs and their benefits in the urban labor market. The advantages and disadvantages of high and low educational attainment have a marked effect on male earnings differentials but this effect is less significant for female earnings. Once account is taken of differences in the marital status of other household members the work potential of other members of households headed by women is less because these other members although more likely to be unmarried are also likely to be younger or older than the prime age adults who are most likely to be secondary earners. The findings suggest that not only are female-headed households particularly disadvantaged in their income earning possibilities but they also have less access to basic services when compared with male-headed households in the same income group.