Estrogenic and Androgenic Potential of Phthalates and Their Alternatives

Abstract

Objectives: Although information on the toxicity of phthalate diesters is readily available, little is known about phthalate alternatives. The present article provides a summary of available information on the toxicity of phthalate diesters and their alternatives, with a special focus on estrogenicity and androgenicity. Methods: We collected a battery of in vitro and in vivo assay data from the literature to assess the estrogenicity/anti-estrogenicity and androgenicity/anti-androgenicity of 15 phthalate diesters and 21 phthalate alternatives. Results: A number of in vitro studies show that certain phthalate diesters can bind to estrogen receptors and have a weak estrogenic potential. However, this potential was not seen in in vivo studies. Phthalate diesters produced anti-androgenic effects in animals by reducing testosterone production. Among them, di-(2-ethyl-hexyl) phthalate (DEHP) was the most potent. While almost all phthalate alternatives have a lower toxic potential than does DEHP, evidence of reproductive toxicity and estrogenic potential were found in several substances. Conclusion: Significant data gaps exist for phthalate alternatives regarding reproductive endocrine disruption, requiring further investigation.