GEOGRAPHIC INEQUALITY UNDER SOCIALISM∗

Abstract

ABSTRACT Many studies have documented the existence of spatial socio-economic inequalities in developing nations, as well as developed, Western nations with market economies. Such spatial inequalities generally have been ascribed to deficiencies in the political, social, and economic systems prevailing in these states. Some writers have implied that under Marxist forms of socialism such inequalities would not occur and that territorial or spatial justice would prevail instead. This paper reviews evidence in recent literature bearing on the question of spatial equality and inequality in the socialist countries of the USSR and northeastern Europe, all of which profess an ideological commitment to the goal of eliminating spatial inequality. Judged from various perspectives—regional contrasts, urban-rural and urban-urban comparisons, and intraurban distinctions—the socialist states studied exhibit marked spatial inequalities. The persistence of these inequalities can be explained in terms of the priority placed on efficiency or military security as opposed to equity in industrial location decisions, the favoring of investment in "productive sectors" rather than social infrastructure, a desire to defer urbanization costs as reflected in constraints on urban growth, the growing scale requirements of service and human welfare facilities, and the continuation of substantial differences in income for various occupation groups. Notes ∗ This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. SOC75–21818 and Grant No. SOC75–22645. 1 Much of this work is summarized in B. E. Coates, R. J. Johnston, and P. L. Knox, Geography and Inequality (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977). 2 Coates, Johnston, and Knox, op. cit., footnote 1; see especially Chapters 2 and 3. 3 These studies have generally ignored discussion of the appropriateness of a) place-focused as opposed to people-focused equity concerns; b) spatial observation units and statistical measures, including problems of scale and variability; c) the equating of geographic equality with social equity, and geographic inequalities with social inequity. (See, however, Coates, Johnston, and Knox, op. cit., footnote 1, pp. 19–22.) Harvey has suggested more sophisticated concepts of spatial social justice, but as yet they provide no operational criteria for defining equity. See David Harvey, "Social Justice and Spatial Systems," in Richard Peet, ed., Geographical Perspectives on American Poverty, Antipode Monographs in Social Geography, 1 (Worcester: Antipode, 1972), pp. 87–106. The difficulties inherent in determining whether spatial distributions are equitable are discussed at length in David M. Smith, Human Geography: A Welfare Approach (London: Arnold, 1977), pp. 131–57. The simplistic equating of equality and equity, despite its obvious deficiencies, is the perspective employed in this review as a matter of convenience and to maintain comparability with the previous studies of Western and developing countries. 4 Coates, Johnston, and Knox, op. cit., footnote 1, p. 256. 5 See, for example, Richard Peet, "The Development of Radical Geography in the United States," in Richard Peet, ed., Radical Geography: Alternative Viewpoints on Contemporary Social Issues (Chicago: Maarouta Press, 1977), pp. 6–30, or various articles in the journal Antipode. 6 For example, Antipode, the major journal outlet for radical geographers, has published but two articles dealing with spatial inequalities in the communist nations: L. W. Murray, Jr., "Socioeconomic Development and Industrial Location in Poland: The Merging of Growth Pole and Growth Center Theories in a Socialist Economy,"Antipode, Vol. 6, No. 2 (1974), pp. 125 41; and Paul Susman, "Cuban Development: From Dualism to Integration,"Antipode, Vol. 6, No. 3 (1974), pp. 10 29. 7 Equality in socialist societies and economies is discussed in Paul Sweezy, Socialism (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1949), Chapter 1; Robert Heilbroner, Between Capitalism and Socialism (New York: Random House, 1970), Chapter 5; and Michael Harrington, Socialism (New York: Bantam, 1973), Chapter 14. 8 See V. Zlatin and V. Rutgaizer, "Comparison of the Levels of Economic Development of Union Republics and Large Regions,"Problems of Economics, Vol. 12, No. 2 (1969), pp. 3 24; the methodological difficulties of measuring areal inequalities are also explored in I. V. Kantsebovskaya and T. G. Runova, "Problems in the Methodology of Measuring and Mapping the Level of Economic Development of the USSR,"Soviet Geography: Review and Translation, Vol. 15, No. 9 (1974), pp. 566 72. 9 See, for example, "The New Program of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union," in Arthur P. Mendel, ed., Essential Works of Marxism (New York: Bantam, 1961), pp. 371–486, reference on p. 428; "Basic Guidelines for the Development of the USSR National Economy in 1976–1980,"Current Digest of the Soviet Press, Vol. 28, No. 5 (1976), pp. 13–17, reference on p. 13; Richard E. Lonsdale, "Regional Inequity and Soviet Concern for Rural and Smalltown Industrialization,"Soviet Geography: Review and Translation, Vol. 18 (1977), pp. 590 602; and Robert G. Jensen, "Soviet Regional Development Policy and the 10th Five-Year Plan,"Soviet Geography: Review and Translation, Vol. 19 (1978), pp. 196 201. 10 Instead the socialist countries provide regional estimates of national income based on material production (identified in the text as "Marxist definition"), which exclude service and government sector net value added. Since the excluded tertiary industries are likely to be concentrated in the most highly urbanized and developed areas, the effect is to "impart a downward bias on interregional differences." See I. S. Koropeckyj, "Equalization of Regional Development in Socialist Countries: An Empirical Study,"Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 21, No. 1 (1972), pp. 68 86, reference on pp. 69–70. 11 Gertrude E. Schroeder, "Regional Differences in Incomes and Levels of Living in the USSR," in V. N. Bandera and Z. L. Melnyk, The Soviet Economy in Regional Perspective (New York: Praeger, 1973), pp. 167–95. 12 Schroeder, op. cit., footnote 11, pp. 168–69. The Soviet economist Divilov provides somewhat different indices of per capita national income which show a range from 56.4 percent of the national average in Tadjikistan to 133.3 percent in Estonia. See S. Divilov, "Labor Resources and the Comparison of General Economic Indices by Union Republic,"Problems of Economics, Vol. 15, No. 11 (1973), pp. 63 72, reference on p. 65. 13 I. S. Koropeckyj, "National Income of the Soviet Union Republics in 1970: Revision and Some Applications," in Zbigniew M. Fallenbuchl, ed., Economic Development in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (New York: Praeger, 1975), Vol. 1, pp. 287–331. It should be noted that Koropeckyj views these GNP figures as more indicative of production potential than population welfare. 14 Koropeckyj, op. cit., footnote 13, p. 316. 15 David S. Kamerling, "Regional Inequality in the Availability of Health Care in the Soviet Union,"Proceedings, Association of American Geographers, Vol. 8 (1976), pp. 125 29; and Alice Andrews, "Spatial Patterns of Higher Education in the Soviet Union,"Soviet Geography: Review and Translation, Vol. 29 (1978), pp. 443 57. 16 Schroeder, op. cit., footnote 11, p. 193. 17 Zlatin and Rutgaizer, op. cit., footnote 8, p. 10. Since this period coincides with the period of decentralized management and the sovnarkhozi it could be construed as evidence that such decentralized management and planning favors spatial inequity. But, Zwick, studying a longer period, finds that "no substantial reduction in the level of inequality among the Soviet republics occurred between 1940 and 1970." See Peter Zwick, "Intrasystem Inequality and the Symmetry of Socioeconomic Development in the USSR,"Comparative Politics, Vol. 8 (1976), pp. 501 23, reference on p. 521. 18 See, e.g., Murray, op. cit., footnote 6; Zbigniew Fallenbuchl, "The Development of the Less Developed Regions in Poland, 1950, 1970," in Andrew F. Burghardt, ed., Development Regions in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and Canada (New York: Praeger, 1975), pp. 14–42; Gerald Karaska, "Perspectives on the Less Developed Regions in Poland," in Burghardt, op. cit., this footnote, pp. 43–64; and I. S. Koropeckyj, "Regional Development in Postwar Poland,"Soviet Studies, Vol. 29 (1977), pp. 108 27. Numerous relevant articles by Polish geographers have appeared in the journal Geographia Polonica and by geographers, economists, and planners in publications of the Committee for Space Economy and Regional Planning of the Polish Academy of Sciences. 19 Karaska, op. cit., footnote 18, p. 45. 20 Karaska, op. cit., footnote 18, p. 45. 21 Fallenbuchl, op. cit., footnote 18. 22 Fallenbuchl, op. cit., footnote 18. 23 Karaska, op. cit., footnote 18, p. 64. 24 Koropeckyj, op. cit., footnote 18, p. 115. 25 Henry Zimon, "Regional Inequalities in Poland: 1960–1975," unpublished Masters thesis, Ohio State University, 1978. 26 Koropeckyj, op. cit., footnote 18, p. 113. 27 György Enyedi, "Development Regions on the Hungarian Great Plain," in Burghardt, op. cit., footnote 18, pp. 65–74, reference on p. 68. 28 G. Enyedi, "The Development of Backward Areas in Hungary," in V. M. Gokhman, G. A. Privalovskaya, and Yu. G. Saushkin, eds., General Economic Geography (Moscow: International Geographical Union, 1976), pp. 201–03, reference on p. 202. 29 Leslie Dienes, "Urban Growth and Spatial Planning in Hungary,"Tijdschrift voor Econ. en Soc. Geografie, Vol. 64 (1973), pp. 24 38, reference on pp. 29–31. 30 Dienes, op. cit., footnote 29, p. 30. 31 Dienes, op. cit., footnote 29, p. 31. Discussion of regional disparities is also contained in Ivan T. Berend, "Development Strategy and Urbanization in Hungary: 1950–1970," in Alan A. Brown, Joseph H. Licardi, and Egon Neuberger, eds., Urban and Social Economics in Market and Planned Economies (New York: Praeger, 1974), Vol. 1, pp. 271–87. For recent commentaries by Hungarian scholars, see the following publications of the Geographical Research Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences: Paul A. Compton and Marton Pécsi, eds., Regional Development and Planning, Studies in Geography in Hungary, No. 12 (Budapest: Akademiai Kiado, 1976), and Gy. Enyedi, ed., Rural Transformation in Hungary, Studies in Geography in Hungary, No. 13 (Budapest: Akademiai Kiado, 1976). 32 Kosta Mihailovic, Regional Development Experiences and Prospects in Eastern Europe (Paris: Mouton, 1972), pp. 50–53. 33 Dieter Scholz, "Die Wirtschaftsraumliche Struktur der DDR,"Geographische Berichte, Vol. 59 (1971), pp. 83 101 and Heinz Lüdemann, "The Process of Equalizing Regional Development in the German Republic," in W. Peter Adams and Fredick M. Helleiner, eds., International Geography, 1972 (Toronto: University of Toronto, 1972), Vol. 1, pp. 388–90. See also William H. Berentsen, "Industrialization in the German Democratic Republic: The Impact on Regional Planning," in Robert West and Clarissa Kimber, eds., AAG Program Abstracts, New Orleans, 1978 (Washington: AAG, 1978), pp. 121–22. 34 Mihailovic, op. cit., footnote 32, p. 27. 35 Generalizations regarding agricultural incomes are difficult to make. Data are "skimpy, contradictory and often deliberately misleading"—Arthur E. Adams and Jan S. Adams, Men Versus Systems: Agriculture in the USSR, Poland and Czechoslovakia (New York: Free Press, 1971), p. 26. The difficulties are compounded by the simultaneous existence of state, collective, and private sectors, with income from the latter poorly recorded. Also, the importance of each sector varies widely from country to country. 36 Computed from Statisticheskoy Yezhegodnik Stranchlenov Sovyeta Ekonomicheskoy Vzaimopomoshchi-1971 (Statistical Yearbook of the Member Countries of the Council of Mutual Economic Assistance-1971) (Moscow: Council of Mutual Economic Assistance, 1971), pp. 389–92; and Statisticheskoy Yezhegodnik Stranchlenov Sovyeta Ekonomicheskoy Vzaimopomoshchi-1976 (Statistical Yearbook of the Member Countries of the Council of Mutual Economic Assistance-1976) (Moscow: Council of Mutual Economic Assistance, 1976), pp. 422–24. 37 The new internal passport regulations, which provide for issuance of passports to all citizens, including collective farmers, are described in "On Adoption of the Statute on the Passport System in the USSR,"Soviet Law and Government, Vol. 14, No. 3 (Winter, 1975–76), pp. 67–80. 38 David E. Powell, "The Rural Exodus,"Problems of Communism, Vol. 23, No. 6 (1974), pp. 1 13, reference on p. 8. 39 Current Digest of the Soviet Press, Vol. 25, No. 2 (1973), p. 23. 40 Current Digest of the Soviet Press, Vol. 25, No. 40 (1973), pp. 4–5; Vol. 28, No. 2 (1976), p. 14. 41 Powell, op. cit., footnote 38, pp. 6–7. 42 Powell, op. cit., footnote 38, pp. 4–9. 43 Hedrick Smith, The Russians (New York: Quadrangle, 1976), p. 207. The net migration figure includes approximately five million formerly rural residents of settlements, the status of which changed from rural to urban. 44 Gy. Barta, "Changes in the Living Conditions of the Rural Population," in Enyedi, op. cit., footnote 31, pp. 89–110. 45 Barta, op. cit., footnote 44, pp. 107–09. 46 See Andrei Amalrick, Involuntary Journey to Siberia (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1970), for a description of isolated Siberian villages; and Adams and Adams, op. cit., footnote 35, for observations on farms in the USSR, Poland and Czechoslovakia. 47 Schroeder, op. cit., footnote 11, reference on p. 177. 48 Barta, op. cit., footnote 44, p. 98. 49 Soviet practices and problems in this respect are discussed by Robert G. Jensen, "Regional Pricing and the Economic Evaluation of Land in Soviet Agriculture," in Bandera and Melnyk, op. cit., footnote 11, pp. 305–27. 50 Barta, op. cit., footnote 44, p. 108. 51 This is in contrast to aggregate "housing space" (obshchaya ploshchad) which includes both living and nonliving space. 52 Viktor Perevedentsev, "Statistics: Housing,"as translated in Current Digest of the Soviet Press, Vol. 27, No. 4 (1975), p. 20. 53 See, e.g., Smith, op. cit., footnote 43, chapter 13, for his observations on Siberian cities. 54 G. Mil'ner and E. Gilinskaya, "Mezhrayonnoye Regulirovaniye Urovnya Zhizni Naseleniya" (Interregional Regulation of the Level of Living of the Population), Planovoye Khozyaystvo, Vol. 52, No. 1 (1975), pp. 56 63, reference on p. 60. 55 Henry W. Morton, "What Have Soviet Leaders Done About the Housing Crisis," in Henry W. Morton and Rudolf L. Tökes, eds., Soviet Politics and Society in the 1970's (New York: The Free Press, 1974), pp. 163–99, reference on p. 122. 56 Morton, op. cit., footnote 55, p. 122. 57 Current Digest of the Soviet Press, Vol. 23, No. 13 (1971), pp. 6–7. 58 Karel Joseph Kansky, Urbanization Under Socialism: The Case of Czechoslovakia (New York: Praeger, 1976), see especially pp. 239–44. 59 Kansky, op. cit., footnote 58, p. 241. 60 Kansky, op. cit., footnote 58, p. 242. 61 Kansky, op. cit., footnote 58, p. 243. 62 Kansky, op. cit., footnote 58, p. 244. 63 See Roland J. Fuchs and George J. Demko, "Commuting in the USSR and Eastern Europe: Causes, Characteristics and Consequences,"East European Quarterly, Vol. 11 (1977), pp. 463 75; Roland J. Fuchs and George J. Demko, "Commuting in the USSR,"Soviet Geography: Review and Translation, Vol. 19 (1978), pp. 363 72; and John Sallnow, "Commuter Movement in Belorussia,"Soviet Geography: Review and Translation, Vol. 19 (1978), pp. 416 25. 64 See Roland J. Fuchs and George J. Demko, "Spatial Population Policies in the Socialist Countries of Eastern Europe,"Social Science Quarterly, Vol. 58 (1977), pp. 60 73; and also György Konrad and Ivan Szelenyi, "Social Conflicts of Underurbanization," in Brown, Licardi, Neuberger, op. cit., footnote 31, pp. 206–26. 65 James H. Bater, "Soviet Town Planning: Theory and Practice in the 1970's,"Progress in Human Geography, Vol. 1 (1977), pp. 177 207, reference on p. 193. 66 Konrad and Szelenyi, op. cit., footnote 64, p. 223. 67 B. S. Khorev, T. K. Smolina, and N. G. Sominskaya, "Commuting Patterns in the Suburban Towns of Small and Middle Size Towns,"Soviet Geography: Review and Translation, Vol. 14, No. 1 (1973), pp. 24–33; B. Sárfalvi, "Various Mechanisms of Internal Migration in Hungary," in B. Sárfalvi, ed., Research Problems in Hungarian Applied Geography (Budapest: Akademiai Kiado, 1969), p. 145. 68 It is interesting to note that the "out-commuters" of cities to satellite towns and rural areas are largely "highly skilled workers and employees of unique institutes" in the case of Moscow, and "white collar workers" in the case of Hungary. See V. G. Gluskova and V. A. Kopilov, "Interaction of Large Metropolitan Cities with Their Suburbs (A Case Study of Moscow)," in S. A. Kovalev and B. S. Khorev, eds., Geography of Population (Moscow: International Geographical Union, 1976), pp. 266–69, reference on p. 267; and Enyedi, op. cit., footnote 31, p. 19. 69 Social area analysis and factorial ecology approaches and findings are reviewed in Chapter 10, "Concepts of Social Space: Toward an Urban Social Geography," in Brian J. L. Berry and Frank E. Horton, Geographic Perspectives on Urban Systems (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1970), pp. 306–94. 70 A description of socialist urban planning goals is contained in Jack C. Fisher, "Planning the City of Socialist Man,"Journal of the American Institute of Planners, Vol. 28 (1962), pp. 251 65, reference on p. 252. 71 Irwin Adams and Richard Francaviglia, "Urban Planning in Poland Today,"Journal of the American Institute of Planners, Vol. 41 (1975), pp. 258 69, reference on p. 264. 72 Grzegorz Weclawowicz, Struktura Przestrzeni Spoleczno-Gospodarczej Warszawy w Latach 1931 i 1970 w Swietle Analizy Czynnikowej (The Structure of Socio-Economic Space of Warsaw in 1931 and 1970 in the Light of Factor Analysis, Prace Geograficzne Nr. 116, Instytut i See also the "The Structure of the Socio-Economic Space in Warsaw in 1931 and Vol. 37 (1977), pp. A published factorial ecology of no of and social for social area analysis and of the social of See N. B. at the of the City of in Yu. V. ed., i (The Urban and of (Moscow: 1977), pp. Weclawowicz, op. cit., footnote 72, p. Weclawowicz, op. cit., footnote 72, p. Ivan "The Housing System and Social Structure in Hungary," in ed., The Social Structure of Eastern Europe (New York: Praeger, 1976), pp. reference on p. in op. cit., footnote p. op. cit., footnote p. Berry and Horton, op. cit., footnote It should be however, that this not are differences in are in and Eastern socialist cities the of and in J. "Regional Development Policy and Regional Planning in Hungary," in Compton and Pécsi, op. cit., footnote 31, pp. reference on p. 25. These that should be a in such a as to national military the socio-economic of population the in the state, an the national socio-economic between urban and rural areas, and production market areas from regional of regional in industrial and but not should be to of the F. E. and Industrial Location in Eastern in John and Alan Regional and Development (London: and 1973), pp. reference on p. "Spatial in the Soviet in Bandera and Melnyk, op. cit., footnote 11, pp. on pp. 21 and F. E. "Spatial of Soviet Economic in Bandera and Melnyk, op. cit., footnote 11, reference on p. 83 22 p. The of are explored in in Zwick, op. cit., footnote in op. cit., footnote p. 25. See I. S. Koropeckyj, Location Policy in the USSR the Postwar in Economic Economic and the in the Soviet Union 1970), pp. are also in Leslie Dienes, in Soviet Association of American Geographers, Vol. 62 (1972), pp. "The of Soviet Association of American Geographers, Vol. 64 (1974), pp. and George "The Impact of Industrial the Soviet Urban Studies, Vol. 15 (1978), pp. See Mihailovic, op. cit., footnote Enyedi, op. cit., footnote 27, Berend, op. cit., footnote and Koropeckyj, op. cit., footnote 18. F. E. "The Location of in and in George W. ed., Eastern Europe: in Geographical Problems (New York: pp. reference on p. I. S. Koropeckyj, "Equalization of Regional Development in Socialist Countries: An Empirical Study,"Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 21 (1972), pp. 68 86, reference on p. J. G. "Regional Inequality and the Process of National Development: A of the Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 13 pp. 3 the socialist to Koropeckyj, op. cit., footnote not exhibit a to regional in the of on Urbanization in Socialist Countries: or Socialist in Alan A. and Egon Neuberger, eds., Internal A Perspective (New York: 1977), pp. See also György Konrad and Ivan "Social Conflicts of in Brown, Licardi, and Neuberger, eds., op. cit., footnote 31, pp. Roland J. Fuchs and George J. Demko, "The Postwar in Eastern Vol. (1978), pp. Roland J. Fuchs and George J. Demko, "Commuting and Urbanization in the Socialist Countries of The Association of Economic Studies, Vol. No. 1 (1977), pp. 21 See Chapter of Andrew N. for and unpublished University of The is also in V. for a Spatial of Regional Vol. 13, No. 3 (1973), pp. Size and location problems for are discussed in Alan S. ed., for Location and (London: George and Poland, for example, the to the of and by and employees in the should be of income and social including is See in p. has that of the to the average income in is approximately See David The Socialist Industrial State 1977), p. in the USSR to to percent of average Income (New York: Praeger, 1974), p. 18. A description of these in the USSR is in Incomes in the Vol. 21, No. 3 (1975), pp. 1 27. See, for example, Peter Data on Soviet Income Vol. 21, No. 3 (1975), pp. 28 41; "The of and Incomes in the Soviet Union,"Soviet Studies, Vol. 29 (1977), pp. op. cit., footnote and Size of A of Data International for and and on income in Eastern relevant are on social for example, and A. Fisher, eds., Social and in the USSR Social and Economic Inequality in the Soviet Union M. E. ed., The Social Structure of Eastern Europe (New York: Praeger, Frank Inequality and Social in and Communist (New York: Praeger, Social and in Eastern Europe (New York: Praeger, and Society in Soviet (New York: 1972), especially Chapter and David op. cit., footnote Chapter op. cit., footnote p. 33 and p. op. cit., footnote p. 33 and p. 101 and income exclude however, the in the socialist countries is highly income are and the major of is a such inequalities are as to Soviet forms of socialism it should be noted that marked income and inequalities also prevail in the of "The has each with and range from at the to at the (New York: Press, 1977), on p. and p. See op. cit., footnote pp. the Soviet Union, it suggested in the Party this would however, to have been an of this See op. cit., footnote 98. See op. cit., footnote p. and op. cit., footnote p. It is to spatial inequalities in Eastern Europe with in the West in of and the of areal on the it is likely that in most of the countries with the of the Soviet Union, spatial inequalities are than in the This would also to be the of in his of regional in communist and John M. and Regional Equality in Communist and Studies, Vol. 8 (1975), pp. 108 op. cit., footnote p. op. cit., footnote p. See Robert A. Richard H. and S. and Population in and the An Evaluation of (New York: Praeger, 1976), especially Chapter 10, pp. See "Social and in Eastern of Communism, Vol. 26 1977), pp. 16 and on a for and in the Soviet See M. I. in the Soviet Union," in R. Impact on (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971), pp. and in a in ed., in the Soviet Union (New York: Praeger, 1976), pp. this see Inequalities University Press, 1970), p. M. and New Issues in Regional in E. A. G. ed., Backward Areas in Countries (New York: Press, 1969), pp. reference on p.