Health effects of cadmium exposure in the general environment in Japan with special reference to the lower limit of the benchmark dose as the threshold level of urinary cadmium

Abstract

Cadmium exposure and the levels of the indicators of renal dysfunction were associated among the men and women aged 40-59 years in areas without any known environmental cadmium pollution. The threshold level of urinary cadmium in Japan seems to be almost the same as in Belgium and Sweden.