The Naga Narrative of Conflict: Envisioning a Resolution Roadmap

Abstract

Abstract The Naga narrative of dissent is a longstanding issue afflicting India's Northeast. Though attempts are being made to resolve the issue through peaceful dialogue between the Union Government and the resistance groups, earlier peace agreements such as the Nine Point Hydari Agreement and the Shillong Accord failed to garner support from all the different Naga tribes. The local fault lines are also playing a destabilizing role in the current peace process with tribal loyalties transcending group loyalties. In this context, the article examines the Indo-Naga relations, the divide between the extremists and the moderates within the Naga movement. It also assesses the counter-discourse to the mainstream separatist discourse. Finally, the article critiques the idea of Naga “uniqueness” on which the resistance groups base their movement as well as indicates the significant “incompatibilities” between actors in order to draw out certain significant policy implications for a peaceful resolution of the issue. Namrata Goswami is Associate Fellow at IDSA. Notes 1. Richard Eaton, ‘Comparative History as World History: Religious Conversions in Modern India,’ Journal of World History, 8(2), 1997, pp. 243–271. Naga political awareness cemented furthermore after they took part in the 14th Army during the Second World War in Kohima, under the command of Field Marshall Slim. Significantly, the Nagas witnessed a modern war in their own land. The experiences of first-hand guerrilla battles against the Japanese had a significant impact on many extremist Naga National Council members, especially A.Z. Phizo, who had also been a Prisoner of War (PoW). See V.K. Nuh and Wetshokhrolo Lasuh, The Naga Chronicle, Regency Publications, New Delhi, 2002, pp. 324–327. 2. ‘Naga History’ at http://nagarealm.com/index.php?module=htmlpages&func=display&pid=2 (Accessed on January 3, 2007). 3. A.S. Shimray, Let Freedom Ring Story of Naga Nationalism, Promilla, New Delhi, 2005, pp. 96–97. 4. ‘Nagaland Assessment-Year 2006’ at http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/nagaland/index.html (Accessed January 4, 2007). 5. M.S. Prabhakara, ‘The Long-Drawn Naga Dialogue,’ The Hindu, October 31, 2006, at http://www.hindu.com/2006/10/31/stories/2006103104560900.htm (Accessed November 5, 2006). Also by the same author, ‘Naga Talks: The Task Ahead,’ The Hindu, February 17, 2005, at http://www.hinduonnet.com/2005/02/17/stories/2005021703961000.htm (Accessed October 3, 2006). 6. Narrative, according to historian Lawrence Stone, is the focusing of the content into a single coherent story, albeit with subplots. A narrative is guided by a “pregnant principle” and includes “a theme and an argument”. See Colin Elman and Miriam Fendius Elman, Bridges and Boundaries Historians, Political Scientists, and the Study of International Relations, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2001, pp. 71–78. 7. Stephen John Stedman, ‘Spoiler Problems in Peace Process,’ International Security, 22(2), 1997, pp. 5–53. 8. Peter Wallensteen, Understanding Conflict Resolution War, Peace and the Global System, Sage Publications, London, 2006, p. 49. 9. See T. Sakhrie, ‘Memorandum of the Case of the Naga People for Self Determination’ and T. Sakhrie, ‘Letter to Winston Churchill,’ The Naga Chronicle, no. 1, pp. 63–66 and p. 113. 10. See The Naga Chronicle, no. 1, pp. 67–68, for the full text of the agreement. 11. B.N. Mullik, My Years with Nehru—1948–1964, Allied Publishers, New Delhi, 1972, p. 298. 12. For further details, see Selected Works of Jawaharlal Nehru Second Series, Vol. 1, The Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund, New Delhi, 1984, pp. 604–605. 13. A.S. Shimray, no. 3, p. 64. 14. Ibid., p. 115. Also The Naga Chronicle, no. 1, p. 115. Also A.Z. Phizo's letter to The President, Republic of India, January 1, 1952, pp. 92–94. 15. B.N. Mullik, no. 11, p. 302. 16. Ramunny Markot, The World of Nagas, Northern Book Centre, New Delhi, 1988, p. 57. 17. Ibid., pp. 300–301. 18. Ibid. 19. A.S. Shimray, no. 3, p. 66. For details on the plebiscite, see The Naga Chronicle, no. 1, pp. 116–133. 20. A.S. Shimray, no. 3, p. 20. 21. B.N. Mullik, no. 11, p. 303. See also M. Horam, Naga Insurgency—The Last Thirty Years, Cosmo Publications, New Delhi, 1988, p. 51. 22. A.S. Shimray, no. 3, p. 69. 23. The Naga Chronicle, no. 1, pp. 155–157. 24. M. Horam, no. 21, p. 52. 25. Federal Government of Nagaland Document, ‘A Brief Political Background of Naga Independence,’ Oking, May 21, 1968, p. 28. 26. Nirmal Nibedon, North East India: The Ethnic Explosion, Lancer Publishers, New Delhi, 1981, p. 28. See also Brig (Retd) S.P. Sinha, ‘C I Operations in the Northeast’ at http://www.indiandefencereview.com/articles/CI-Operations-in-the-Northeast.html (Accessed January 23, 2007). 27. B.N. Mullik, no. 11, p. 312. 28. See Nari Rustomji, Imperiled Frontiers: India's North-Eastern Borderlands, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1983, p. 31. 29. B.N. Mullik, no. 11, pp. 312–314. 30. M. Horam, no. 21, p. 84. Also The Naga Chronicle, no. 1, pp. 191–194. 31. See Naga Chronicle, no. 1, pp. 195–198, for full text of the document. 32. Gavin Young, The Nagas, an Unknown War: India's Threat to Peace, NNC Publications, London, 1962. 33. Luingam Luithui and Nandita Haksar, Nagaland File: A Question of Human Rights, Lancer, New Delhi, 1984, p. 16. 34. Sajal Nag, Contesting Marginality, Ethnicity, Insurgency and Subnationalism in Northeast India, Manohar, New Delhi, 2002, p. 76. 35. Andrew Clow, Memorandum on the Future of the Assam Tribal People, Shillong, 1945. 36. See M. Horam, Naga Polity, B.R. Publishing House, New Delhi, 1975, p. 15. 37. Verrier Elwin (ed.), The Nagas in Nineteenth Century, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1969, p. 163. 38. Udayan Mishra, North East India: Quest for Identity, Osmos Publications, New Delhi, 1983, p. 10. See also Nagaland Peace Mission, ‘Letter to the Prime Minister, Government of India,’ May 27, 1965, The Naga Chronicle, no. 1, pp. 249–241. 39. The Naga Chronicle, no. 1, pp. 226–230, 319–323. 40. Tatar Hoho, ‘Naga Declaration of Peace,’ April 3, 1965, The Naga Chronicle, no. 1, pp. 223–225. 41. By this time, NNC cadres were increasingly being trained in arms in China. For more details on this unfolding drama, see Yonuo Asoso, The Rising Nagas, Vivek Publishing House, New Delhi, 1974, p. 294. See also M. Aram, Peace in Nagaland: Eight Years Story, 1964–1972, Arnold Heinemann, New Delhi, 1974, p. 137. 42. Yonuo Asoso, no. 41, p. 294. 43. A.S. Shimray, no. 3, p. 86. 44. O.M. Rao, Longri Ao A Biography, Christian Literature Centre, Guwahati, 1986, pp. 88–89. 45. A.S. Shimray, no. 3, p. 99. 46. ‘25 Years of Nagaland Legislative Assembly,’ Zhangulie, Assembly Secretariat, Kohima, 1989, p. 155. Richard Eaton indicated that Nagas represented the second massive conversion to Christianity, the first being Filipinos. Eaton estimated that 90 per cent of Nagas were Christians, while the NSCN (IM) puts the figure at 95 per cent. Hence, it is not surprising that the NSCN (IM) declared in the Free Nagaland Manifesto “Nagaland for Christ” in 1993. The NSCN (IM) has a separate Ministry for Religious Affairs, and a council called the “Council of Nagaland Churches”. See Richard Eaton, no. 1, and Annual Report of 1992–1993, Nagaland for Christ, Council of Nagaland Churches, Oking, June 30, 1993. 47. Annual Report of 1992–1993, Nagaland for Christ, Council of Nagaland Churches, Oking, June 30, 1993. NSCN Manifesto, Oking, January 31, 1980, p. 38. 48. A.S. Shimray, no. 3, p. 93. 49. The Naga Chronicle, no. 1, pp. 331–332. 50. Statement by the FGN on the Shillong Accord, December 30, 1995. See The Naga Chronicle, no. 1, pp. 344–356. 51. Peter Wallensteen, no. 8, pp. 39–40. 52. A.S. Shimray, no. 3, p. 119. 53. NSCN Manifesto, GPRN, Oking, January 31, 1980. 54. A.S. Shimray, no. 3, p. 162. 55. Brig V.S. Atem's Statement, NSCN IM Publications, October 1994. 56. Joint Statement of Muivah and Swu, July 7, 1989, GPRN, p. 12. See B.G. Verghese, India's Northeast Resurgent Ethnicity Insurgency Governance Development, Konarak Publishers, New Delhi, 2004, pp. 95–96, and V.K. Nayar, The North East and Jammu and Kashmir: From Real Politik to Ideal Politik, Shipra, New Delhi, 2005, p. 38. 57. A.S. Shimray, no. 3, p. 200. 58. The word Nagalim is an Ao word, Lim meaning land. NSCN (IM) changed its last word Nagaland to Nagalim in 1999. See Sakhrie Angami et al., ‘Genesis of Nagalim,’ at http//www.kuknalim.net/focus/2002/focusApr2002item1.html (Accessed September 2, 2006). 59. M. Horam, no. 21, pp. 183–202. 60. See http://nagaland.nic.in/profile/history/peace.htm (Accessed November 12, 2006). 61. Sushanta Talukdar, “NSCN (IM) harps on ‘federation”’, The Hindu, October 24, 2006. 62. ‘NSCN IM Asks Central Government to Rethink on Federal Structure,’ India Daily, October 3, 2006, at http://www.indiadaily.org/entry/nscn-im-asks-central-government-to-rethink-on-federal-structure/ (Accessed November 10, 2006). 63. For a text of the ceasefire agreement between NSCN (K) and the Government of India, see http://manipuronline.tripod.com/documents/grndrule.htm (Accessed November 18, 2006). 64. See ‘Nagaland Assessment-Year’ 2006, at http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/nagaland/index.html (Accessed November 18, 2006). 65. http://www.nagalim.nl/news/archive-072006.html (Accessed November 18, 2006). 66. http://www.nscnonline.org (Accessed November 3, 2006). 67. Rajeev Bhattacharyya, ‘Nagalim Will Not Be Part of India, says Muivah,’ The Indian Express, December 22, 2006, at http://www.indianexpress.com/story/19117.html (Accessed December 27, 2006). 68. A.S. Shimray, no. 3, pp. 60–61. 69. The Naga Chronicle, no. 1, pp. 111–112. See also T. Sakhrie, Secretary of the Naga National Council's letter to Clement Atlee, then Prime Minister of England, The Naga Chronicle, no. 1, p. 114 70. See Deputy Commissioner, Naga Hills District, Hutton to the Indian Statutory Commission Memorandum of the Government of Assam, Indian Statutory Commission, 14, London, 1930, pp. 111–118. The Simon Commission headed by Sir John Simon arrived in India on February 3, 1928, to study constitutional reform for India, at http://oking-media.tripod.com/id3.html (Accessed January 28, 2007). 71. Significantly, it must be mentioned that the idea of Crown Colony was rejected by the NNC in a resolution passed in June 1946. See S. Chaube, Hill Politics in North East India, Orient Longman, New Delhi, 1973, p. 69. Verrier Elwin argued that with Naga support, the Crown Colony might have been a reality. See Y.D. Gundeiva, War and Peace in Nagaland, Palit and Palit, New Delhi, 1975, p. 67. 72. Federal Government of Nagaland Document, ‘A Brief Political Background of Naga Independence,’ Oking, May 21, 1968, p. 70. 73. See The Naga Chronicle, no. 1, pp. 30–31. 74. T. Aliba Impti, Reminiscence: Impur to Naga National Council, Mokokchung, Nagaland, 1988. 75. K.S. Singh (ed.), Tribal Movements in India, Vol. 1, Manohar, New Delhi, 1992, p. 44. The second memorandum clearly stated that a 10-year Interim Government with full legislative, judicial and executive powers for the Nagas must be formed. India will have power over defence. After 10 years, Nagas would choose their own government. 76. A.S. Shimray, no. 3, p. 62. 77. Edward Gait, A History of Assam, Thacker, Spink and Co., London, 1906. 78. Alexander Mackenzie, The North-East Frontier of India, Mittal Publications, New Delhi, 2001, pp. 77–89. 79. Sir James Johnston, Manipur and the Naga Hills, Vivek Publishing House, New Delhi, 1971, p. 22. 80. Ibid., pp. 73–90. 81. Luingam Luithui and Nandita Haksar, no. 33, p. 17. 82. M Alemchiba, A Brief Historical Account of Nagaland, Naga Institute of Culture, Kohima, 1970, p. 132. 83. A policy of non-interference was also followed as the British saw no advantage in possessing the Naga Hills. Lord Dalhousie stated that “our possession of Naga Hills brings no profit to us, and would be as costly to us as it would be unproductive”. See Verrier Elwin, no. 37, pp. 162–163. 84. Ibid, pp. 538–539. 85. Sajal Nag, no. 34, p. 15. 86. J.S. Pandey, Indian Constitution, Constitutional Law of India, Central Law Agency, Allahabad, 1997, p. 600. 87. Sanjib Baruah, Durable Disorder: Understanding the Politics of Northeast India, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2005, pp. 99–106. 88. Mary Kaldor, New & Old Wars, Polity Press, Cambridge, 2006, pp. 1–14. 89. A.S. Shimray, no. 3, p. 87. 90. M.S. Prabhakara, no. 5.