Orographic effects on precipitating clouds

TLDR

Precipitation over mountains is not caused by topography itself but occurs when storms of any type—deep convection, fronts, tropical cyclones—form near or move over complex terrain, with frontal systems producing maximum rainfall over the first rise of terrain and on ridges while valleys receive less. Deep convective and mesoscale systems near mountains are shaped by airflow channeling, capping of moist boundary layers, and triggering when low‑level flow encounters hills, while nocturnal downslope flows, diurnal disturbances, and upslope winds enhance stratiform regions; frontal systems experience blocking and shear that promote turbulence, and tropical cyclones generate gravity waves and upslope flow that can break caps and trigger intense convection. The study finds that the side of a mountain receiving maximum rainfall depends on its height, with windward or leeward sides sometimes experiencing the peak.

Abstract

Precipitation over and near mountains is not caused by topography but, rather, occurs when storms of a type that can occur anywhere (deep convection, fronts, tropical cyclones) form near or move over complex terrain. Deep convective systems occurring near mountains are affected by channeling of airflow near mountains, capping of moist boundary layers by flow subsiding from higher terrain, and triggering to break the cap when low‐level flow encounters hills near the bases of major mountain ranges. Mesoscale convective systems are triggered by nocturnal downslope flows and by diurnally triggered disturbances propagating away from mountain ranges. The stratiform regions of mesoscale convective systems are enhanced by upslope flow when they move over mountains. In frontal cloud systems, the poleward flow of warm‐sector air ahead of the system may rise easily over terrain, and a maximum of precipitating cloud occurs over the first rise of terrain, and rainfall is maximum on ridges and minimum in valleys. If the low‐level air ahead of the system is stable, blocking or damming occurs. Shear between a blocked layer and unblocked moist air above favors turbulent overturning, which can accelerate precipitation fallout. In tropical cyclones, the tangential winds encountering a mountain range produce a gravity wave response and greatly enhanced upslope flow. Depending on the height of the mountain, the maximum rain may occur on either the windward or leeward side. When the capped boundary layer of the eye of a tropical cyclone passes over a mountain, the cap may be broken with intense convection resulting.