Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of the thrombotic microangiopathic haemolytic anaemias

Abstract

Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP) was first described by Moschowitz (1924). The classic pentad of diagnostic features has been recognized for many years. However, several other syndromes are also characterized by similar features. These include haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS), eclampsia and the HELLP syndrome (haemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelets). The concept has arisen that they might represent an overlapping spectrum of disease, although with varying pathophysiological features (see Table I). The recent characterization of a novel von Willebrand factor (VWF)-cleaving metalloprotease activity (Furlan et al, 1996; Tsai, 1996) and its deficiency or inhibition in some forms of microangiopathic haemolysis (Furlan et al, 1997, 1998; Tsai & Lian, 1998) has led to speculation that a pathogenic mechanism for individual patients can be defined more readily and appropriate treatment introduced more rapidly. However, there is still considerable confusion, a lack of properly conducted randomized clinical trials and poor co-ordination of clinical data. This is, in part, because these patients present to a range of specialists including haematologists, obstetricians, nephrologists and infectious disease physicians. These guidelines attempt to define the various clinical subtypes, specify the recognized diagnostic features and look critically at management options. It is acknowledged that there is a lack of evidence from well-conducted studies on which to support some of the recommendations made. Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP) is rare. The reported incidence is 3·7 per million (Torok et al, 1995). However, its prompt recognition and treatment is vital, as delays in initiating treatment have been shown to adversely affect outcome (Pereira et al, 1995). TTP is a clinical diagnosis. It is characterized by the classic pentad of thrombocytopenia, microangiopathic haemolytic anaemia, fluctuating neurological signs, renal impairment and fever, often with insidious onset. Neurological impairment has multiple manifestations including headache, bizarre behaviour, transient sensorimotor deficits (TIAs), seizure and coma. Presence of coma at presentation is a poor prognostic indicator (Pereira et al, 1995; Sarode et al, 1997). Additional complications may be seen: gastrointestinal ischaemia (manifest as abdominal pain) and serous retinal detachment are recognized associations. However, up to 35% of TTP patients do not have neurological symptoms or signs at presentation (Rock et al, 1991). As the triad of acute renal insufficiency, MAHA and thrombocytopenia defines HUS, diagnostic uncertainty may arise. Moreover, fever and renal impairment are present in only a minority of patients (Rock et al, 1991, 1998). In practice, therefore, a diagnosis of TTP may be made in the presence of a microangiopathic haemolytic anaemia and thrombocytopenia in the absence of any other identifiable cause. A number of different clinical variants of TTP have been documented. Clinical subtype may influence management and those recognized are listed in Table II. The predominant histological abnormality found in TTP is the formation of platelet microvascular thrombi. The renal and cerebral circulations are primarily affected, thus accounting for the clinical features of the disease. Excessive platelet aggregation occurs when platelet-rich plasma (PRP) from patients with congenital TTP is exposed to shear stress (Moake et al, 1994). This is mediated by ultra-large VWF multimers (ULVWF) (Moake et al, 1994; Karpman et al, 1997). ULVWF are not a normal constituent of circulating plasma. Instead, VWF circulates as smaller multimeric forms resulting from proteolytic degradation of ULVWF. VWF fragments with mobility corresponding to 189, 176 and 140 kDa are consistently detected in normal plasma in addition to the predominant 225 kDa subunit (Zimmerman et al, 1986; Tsai et al, 1991). These originate as a consequence of cleavage of a single peptide bond between residues Tyr-842 and Met-843 of the mature subunit (Dent et al, 1991). Identical fragments may be generated in vivo by a novel metalloproteinase activity (Furlan et al, 1996; Tsai, 1996). The protease has recently been characterized as a new member of the ADAMTS (a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin type-I motif) family, ADAMTS13 (Fujikawa et al, 2001; Gerritsen et al, 2001; Levy et al, 2001). Deficiency of this VWF-cleaving protease (VWF-CP) activity has been associated with acquired and congenital TTP. While all cases of idiopathic TTP have, to date, been associated with severe protease deficiency, secondary TTP may occur in the context of normal protease activity (Veyradier et al, 2001). In a series of 111 patients with thrombotic microangiopathies of whom 66 manifested with TTP (25 idiopathic and 41 secondary) and 45 with HUS, protease deficiency had a sensitivity of 89% and specificity of 91% for TTP. Initial reports suggested that idiopathic TTP is secondary to an inhibitory auto-antibody of IgG subtype (Furlan et al, 1998; Tsai & Lian, 1998), but in the above series, a protease inhibitor was identified in only 14 patients (56%). While congenital TTP appears secondary to a constitutional deficiency (Furlan et al, 1997, 1998), presentation may be delayed until adulthood (Lämmle et al, 2001). Cirrhosis (Mannucci et al, 2001), uraemia (Mannucci et al, 2001), acute inflammation (Mannucci et al, 2001), disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) (Loof et al, 2001) and malignancy (Oleksowicz et al, 1999) have now also been associated with reduced VWF-CP activity. Thus, although sensitive, reduced VWF-CP activity is not specific for TTP. Moreover, this model fails to explain the anatomical distribution of thrombi. The endothelium is a heterogeneous organ and is subject to regulation by multiple factors, including cytokines (Drake et al, 1993), microenvironment (Aird et al, 1997) and shear stress (White & Fujiwara, 1986). Alterations in any one of these parameters could influence either VWF-CP activity per se or the susceptibility of VWF to proteolysis. TTP is often characterized by severe thrombocytopenia, which may be useful in its differentiation from HUS. However, in one series, although the mean platelet count was lower in TTP than HUS (18 × 109/l vs 36 × 109/l), there was a wide range and considerable overlap (Vesely et al, 2000). Severe thrombocytopenia at diagnosis (platelet count < 20 × 109/l) has been suggested to be a poor prognostic indicator, conferring increased mortality (Rock et al, 1998), although this is not a uniform observation (Sarode et al, 1997). Thrombocytopenia is typically accompanied by overt microangiopathic haemolysis. Thus, examination of the blood film usually shows striking red cell fragmentation and polychromasia. However, schistocytes may be absent from the peripheral blood film in the first 24–48 h following clinical presentation. Routine coagulation profiles are usually normal (Monteagudo et al, 1991; Sagripanti et al, 1996; Rock et al, 1998), although slight increases in D-dimer, fibrin degradation products and thrombin–anti-thrombin complex (TAT) may be seen (Monteagudo et al, 1991; Sagripanti et al, 1996; Wada et al, 1998). Secondary DIC may, however, arise from prolonged tissue ischaemia and is an ominous prognostic indicator. Evidence of endothelial perturbation is demonstrated by increased plasma levels of plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI-1) (Anthony et al, 1998) and thrombomodulin. The latter has also been identified as a poor prognostic factor (Wada et al, 1998). Plasma VWF levels are often elevated acutely (Rock et al, 1998). Abnormalities of VWF multimers are also common and were identified in 86% of patients either at the onset of or during an acute episode of TTP (Moake & McPherson, 1989). These ranged from the presence of ULVWF multimers in 31% to a relative decrease in the largest plasma VWF forms in 36%. Acute changes in VWF multimeric distribution do not appear to correlate with clinical outcome. However, the finding of ULVWF multimers during periods of remission has been associated with intermittent TTP (Moake & McPherson, 1989). Renal function is normal in the majority of patients: only 18% patients presenting to the Canadian Apheresis Group had evidence of renal impairment (Shumak et al, 1995). Liver function tests often show not only hyperbilirubinaemia but also a raised transaminase level. This is thought to represent hepatic ischaemia. Evans' syndrome may be excluded by a negative direct anti-globulin test. Recommended diagnostic laboratory investigations to be performed at presentation are given in Table III. In those TTP patients in whom significant renal impairment is a feature, it may be impossible to confidently exclude HUS. Where there is doubt, a presumptive diagnosis of TTP should be made and plasmapheresis initiated. Occasionally renal biopsy performed after recovery of the platelet count may allow accurate retrospective diagnosis. In TTP, arteriolar and capillary thrombosis is prominent. Thrombi are largely composed of platelets and stain strongly for VWF. Only weak staining for fibrin and fibrinogen is seen in contrast to those thrombi formed in DIC (Asada et al, 1985). Aneurysmal dilatation of arterioles may lead to the formation of glomeruloid structures with relative sparing of the glomeruli (Katoh & Shigematsu, 1999). These features should be contrasted with those seen in HUS when the primary histological changes are glomerular and arteriolar fibrin thrombi and subendothelial widening of the glomerular capillary wall on electron microscopy (Remuzzi & Ruggenenti, 1995). If a diagnosis of TTP is made, consideration must be given to the presence of precipitants. These are drugs, autoimmune disease, malignancy and infection, particularly Escherichia coli 0157:H7 and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Although E. coli 0157:H7 is more closely linked with HUS, there have been cases with typical TTP features (Morrison et al, 1986; Kovacs et al, 1990). Of note VWF-CP deficiency was detected in one of 29 children with epidemic HUS, 25 of whom were positive for verotoxin (Hunt et al, 2001). In some series, up to 14% of TTP episodes have been associated with HIV infection (Ucar et al, 1994), although mortality data from the United States for 1988–1991 gives a figure of only 4·4% (Torok et al, 1995). Risk appears greatest at CD4 counts of less than 250 × 109/l (de Man et al, 1997). Serological testing for HIV should, therefore, be performed at diagnosis in all patients. As treatment (see below) results in multiple donor exposure, hepatitis B and C serology is also recommended in all patients at presentation. Recommendation. While there is no available diagnostic test for TTP, TTP may be diagnosed and treatment initiated if a patient presents with a microangiopathic haemolytic anaemia and thrombocytopenia in the absence of any other identifiable clinical cause. Routine investigations at presentation should include the following: full blood count, film, clotting screen, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), direct anti-globulin test, urea and electrolytes, liver function tests, and urine dipstick for protein. An underlying precipitant should be considered. It is recommended that HIV and hepatitis serology tests are performed at diagnosis (Grade C, level IV). The mainstay of treatment of acute TTP is daily plasma exchange. Prior to its institution, mortality rates were in excess of 90% and have now fallen to 10–30%. Plasma exchange is superior to plasma infusion. A prospective randomized study performed by the Canadian Apheresis Group assigned a total of 102 patients to receive either plasma exchange or infusion with fresh-frozen plasma (FFP) on 7 of the first 9 d after entry to the trial. Plasma exchange resulted in significantly superior response rates at both the end of the first treatment cycle and at 6 months (response rates 47% and 78%vs 25% and 49% respectively). Mortality was also reduced at 22%vs 37% (Rock et al, 1991). Plasma exchange should be instituted within 24 h of presentation as delay in treatment initiation may increase treatment failure (Pereira et al, 1995). Moreover, it would seem appropriate to commence plasma exchange as soon as practicable if renal impairment, cardiac failure or coma is present. Reduced level of consciousness has been identified as a poor prognostic factor with an overall survival of 54% (Sarode et al, 1997). The duration of plasma exchange therapy required to achieve remission is highly variable. The average number of procedures required for remission in the above study was 15·8 (range 3–36). As the premature omission of a single plasma exchange may be associated with exacerbation, patients should be treated in centres able to provide a daily plasmapheresis service. Although undoubtedly efficacious, the optimal plasma exchange regimen has not been determined. In the Canadian apheresis trial, 1·5 × plasma volume exchange was performed on the first 3 d followed by 1·0 plasma volume exchange thereafter. Whether this intensity is superior to single plasma volume replacement from presentation is unclear. Currently, many centres initiate single-volume plasma exchange at presentation, reserving more intensive exchange for resistant cases. Similarly, the optimal duration of plasma exchange is unknown. It is empirically recommended that daily exchanges should continue for a minimum of 2 d after complete remission is obtained, defined as normal neurological status, platelet count and LDH with a rising haemoglobin. This is in agreement with the American Association of Blood Banks (AABB), which recommends daily plasma exchange until the platelet count is above 150 × 109/l for 2 to 3 d (AABB Extracorporeal Therapy Committee, 1992). Although it is accepted practice to taper the frequency of exchange procedures rather than stopping abruptly in an effort to minimize the risk of early relapse; this is not based on randomized clinical trials. The optimal replacement fluid administered also remains contentious. Possibly of note, cryosupernatant lacks the largest VWF multimers that are present in FFP and cryoprecipitate. Cryosupernatant is at least as efficacious as FFP. When used in previously untreated patients, the response rate was 75% after seven exchanges. Survival was 95% at 1 month, which compared favourably with historical control subjects treated with FFP (Rock et al, 1996). In contrast, a prospective randomized trial performed by the North American TTP Group failed to identify a significant difference in outcome between plasmapheresis with FFP or cryosupernatant from diagnosis. It should be noted, however, that only 27 patients were included in this trial (Zeigler et al, 2001). Larger trials are required to address this issue and a randomized controlled trial comparing plasma exchange with FFP versus cryosupernatant is currently being performed in Canada. Side-effects secondary to plasmapheresis are common. In one study, 9·7% of procedures were complicated by adverse reactions with anaphylactoid reactions occurring in 0·25% (Mokrzycki & Kaplan, 1994). Solvent/detergent-treated (S/D) plasma not only reduces viral risk but may be beneficial in reducing allergic reactions. This is because the process of plasma pooling results in extreme dilution of those antibodies responsible for immune-mediated reactions. S/D plasma has a similar favourable multimer profile to cryosupernatant and has been used as replacement fluid from presentation (Evans et al, 1999). However, numbers treated are small and there is no published comparative data with FFP or cryosupernatant. Further clinical experience is required to ascertain the role of S/D plasma in the primary treatment of TTP. Although plasma exchange remains the treatment of choice, plasma infusion (30 ml/kg/d) may still be indicated if there is to be an unavoidable delay in plasma exchange. It must be undertaken with care, however, as cardiac function may be compromised and cardiac failure can be precipitated. Recommendation. Single-volume daily plasma exchange should be commenced at presentation (Grade A, level Ib) and ideally within 24 h of presentation (Grade C, level IV). Plasma exchange using cryosupernatant may be more efficacious than that using FFP (Grade B, level III). Daily plasma exchange should continue for a minimum of 2 d after complete remission is obtained (Grade C, level IV). Corticosteroids. Steroids have been widely used in the treatment of TTP although there is scanty evidence documenting their efficacy. However, patients with TTP lacking central nervous system abnormalities other than headache have been shown to respond to steroid treatment alone, although of 54 such patients 44% required plasma exchange because of deterioration or failure to improve (Bell et al, 1991). Steroids have also been combined with plasma exchange in initial treatment of TTP. The addition of intravenous methylprednisolone 2 mg/kg/d to daily plasma exchange resulted in a complete remission rate of 76% (Perotti et al, 1996). As yet, no trial has addressed whether such a combination approach is superior to plasma exchange alone. Not surprisingly, there is no consensus regarding dose or mode of administration. Despite the lack of evidence, the addition of steroids to plasma exchange as standard therapy is attractive. Recent findings suggest that a functional deficiency of a novel VWF-CP activity secondary to a circulating inhibitory antibody of IgG subtype is of prime importance in the pathogenesis of TTP (Furlan et al, 1998; Tsai & Lian, 1998). It would, therefore, appear reasonable to institute steroids in all patients. Recommendation. All patients should receive adjuvant corticosteroid therapy (Grade B, level III). To achieve potent immunosuppression while minimizing long-term steroid side-effects, pulse methylprednisolone 1 g i.v. for 3 d is recommended (Grade C, level IV). Anti-platelet agents. The use of anti-platelet agents in TTP remains controversial. Ticlopidine and its analogue clopidogrel inhibit ADP–platelet interactions and interfere with shear-induced aggregation and might, therefore, be predicted to be of use in TTP. Certainly ticlopidine appeared to the risk of from to when used as therapy for months after remission of TTP was et al, 1997). However, at in this trial was ticlopidine et al, 1998) and clopidogrel et al, have been associated with TTP. The incidence of TTP is 1 per patients treated while that following clopidogrel is per million As the latter is similar to the reported incidence of idiopathic TTP an remains controversial. in both antibody to VWF-CP have been identified et al, Tsai et al, 2000). In with plasmapheresis is treatment with reported survival rates of and is superior to plasma infusion et al, 2000). these ticlopidine and clopidogrel should be in patients with a of TTP. and have both been used in the initial treatment of TTP. A response rate at 6 months was when and were administered in with plasma exchange (Rock et al, 1991). In a prospective randomized trial to address the of the addition of and to standard treatment exchange and a similar overall response was obtained in both however, a to reduced mortality at d in those treated with anti-platelet agents. excess was seen in the treatment et al, in contrast to the findings of a small retrospective study in which complications in of 14 patients anti-platelet et al, It should be noted, however, that were administered in these patients Although not of there is a for therapy when the platelet count × 109/l as a in platelet count during recovery has been associated with Recommendation. should be commenced on platelet recovery (platelet count × 109/l) (Grade C, level IV). cell is an of However, there is no single to the for red cell Identical survival rates resulted when a was given based on a of 7 rather than in critically patients et al, 1999). As TTP may be complicated by haemolysis and cardiac secondary to microvascular a patient should be to clinical after consideration of the and of All patients should receive are there is as they have been associated with disease et al, et al, centres the use of in an attempt to minimize secondary However, neurological features are absent in 35% of patients and only occur in a minority of the patients (Rock et al, 1991). Secondary rather than primary of with would, therefore, seem Although fever is one of the features of TTP, an underlying infection should be if infection may response to plasma exchange or early B should be given to all patients and can be administered using a platelet of × Recommendation. cell should be administered to clinical (Grade B, level III). is required in all patients. are in TTP there is B is recommended in all patients (Grade C, level IV). Despite the in there remains a with a or response to plasma exchange disease may be defined as thrombocytopenia (platelet count < 150 × 109/l) or LDH after a total of seven daily plasma exchange of this of patients is and a wide range of has been randomized clinical trials have not been performed because of the and of this of plasma exchange. are reports documenting to plasma exchange in cases of TTP following the of either cryosupernatant et al, or S/D plasma et al, 1996) for FFP. S/D plasma lacks the largest plasma VWF multimers and this may be of therefore, there is a response to plasma exchange after 7 d or clinical deterioration daily plasma an replacement fluid should be While fresh-frozen plasma has been used in the management of TTP et al, clinical experience is at present S/D VWF multimeric is not Whether cryosupernatant has a role in the management of TTP clinical of plasma exchange has also been used in cases of TTP with the of either h or plasma volume exchanges. this approach is Recommendation. In the presence of disease an plasma lacking VWF multimeric cryosupernatant or S/D plasma should be used for plasma exchange (Grade C, level IV). of plasma exchange procedures should also be in cases (Grade C, level IV). Although is often used in the treatment of TTP, published its only reports or small retrospective these suggest that the of in TTP may be associated with platelet recovery et al, et al, et al, 1994). A role for the early of 3 d of has also been following a small retrospective study et al, 1998). However, such practice would a risk of of clinical this finding can be by controlled should be for cases. A number of have been with no for any single A of 1 3 to d for a total of is as it may while efficacy. dose have, however, been used The mechanism of of remains unclear. Recommendation. 1 3 to d for a total of is recommended in TTP (Grade C, level IV). has also been for the treatment of TTP, particularly those in patients experience intermittent et al, & et al, 1998). daily and therapy have been used although reported numbers are is to be a potent and this is thought to its efficacy. Although is associated with an increased risk of there are reports of its to the treatment of et al, 1998), severe intermittent et al, 1998) and TTP et al, 1997). This is with the autoimmune model of TTP and While be excluded in these patients, clinical and response 7 to 14 d after initiating may, therefore, to be a useful in these patients. However, remains The optimal duration of treatment is with after of therapy et al, 1998; et al, 1998). The optimal range is also levels of have been The of this must also be considered. Recommendation. immunosuppression using either or is indicated in severe or TTP (Grade C, level IV). The of VWF-CP is now to the clinical that TTP currently a heterogeneous of It has been recognized that plasma exchange is in the treatment of TTP, that an process might be This is by the recent finding that VWF-CP activity was normal in seven and only reduced in one of patients with TTP et al, 1999). treatment for this of patients is, however, of TTP has been reported following initiation of et al, although therapy is a recognized risk with total for TTP. In the latter should be Whether might be useful in such patients is unclear. Certainly this has been in the treatment of TTP in which plasma exchange is often found to be In one small retrospective series, it was found to be of in seven of patients had been to plasma exchange et al, 1997). Recommendation. and TTP are often to plasma exchange. may be (Grade C, level IV). Although remission is now in patients, remains from the Canadian Apheresis Group that a up to of TTP patients has up to after the (Shumak et al, 1995). All patients should be of the of and to early if symptoms of it is impossible to identify those patients at greatest although the presence of ULVWF during periods of remission is associated with intermittent disease (Moake & McPherson, 1989). is no consensus whether there is any that might this has been as a of reducing the small retrospective study including patients results with rates from to per when the was performed during remission et al, 1996). However, acute of TTP have