What Happened to Unequal Treaties? The Continuities of Informal Empire

Abstract

The barbarians are like beasts and not to be ruled on the same principles as Chinese. Were one to attempt to control them by the great maxims of reason it would tend to nothing but the greatest confusion. The ancient sovereigns well understood this and accordingly ruled barbarians by misrule . . . to rule barbarians by misrule was the true and best way of ruling them." [Confucian maxim attributed to Su Tung-po, cited in H. Morse, The International Relations of the Chinese Empire (London: Longmans, 1910) I, p. 111] "[As a consequence of its engagements with the West] China has been compelled to abandon its inveterate anti-commercial and antisocial principles, and to acknowledge the independence and equality of other nations in the mutual intercourse of war and peace."