From “La Mujer Esclava” to “La Mujer Limón”: Anarchism and the Politics of Sexuality in Early-Twentieth-Century Chile

Abstract

The world that the unhappy woman workerinhabits is a martyr’s cell,where she suffers the infamies and miseriesof life with deep sadness!Could there be some hidden powerthat makes the woman, always enslaved,accept the foolish and miserable insultof the powerful and mystical bourgeois?No! Because the sun of the Social Questionhas already brightened the minds of the people.It destroys universal ignorance,and, woman, you must study in its templesWorkers of the world! Already, the lightthat shines on human knowledgehas begun to destroy the yoke and the crossthat we have carried on our shoulders for so many years—Clara Rosa González, “Al Combate,” El Acrata, May 15, 1901The paradox of the Chilean labor movement under the Parliamentary Republic is not that so little attention was given to women, but rather that there was so much. As foreign labor ideology and modes of organization reached Southern Cone countries via tides of working-class immigrants—and, in the case of Chile, through translated foreign pamphlets that circulated among workers— the question of what to do about “the woman question” provoked considerable concern among working-class activists. Amidst the growing influence of anarchist ideology and the proliferation of the “resistance societies” (sociedades de resistencia) that they promoted, anarchists were among the first working-class organizers to draw attention to the topic of female subordination. When Clara Rosa González read her poem Into Battle to a large audience of men and women gathered at a union hall in downtown Santiago in April 1901, she joined prominent male anarchists in a program dedicated to the topic of the woman question, illustrating the level of attention anarchists generally dedicated to it at the turn of the century.1 González’s brimming optimism about women’s imminent transformation from victims of capital into agents of revolution reflects what Chilean anarchist leaders were writing and saying about women’s emancipation; most anarchist writings on the woman question in Chile prior to World War I emphasized, as González did, that libertarian education alone could free women from their historic slavery to men and capital. Such utopian claims may have seemed less so to working-class listeners in the context of anarchist propaganda, which triumphantly recorded the proliferation of women’s and mixed-sex resistance societies among working women in Santiago and Valparaíso after the turn of the century.By the third decade of the twentieth century, however, attention to women in anarchist newspapers and union broadsides revealed anarchists’ relatively greater skepticism about women’s revolutionary potential. The publication of diatribes such as “You are like a lemon” signaled a turn to more aggressive, sarcastic rhetorical strategies after 1918, as some anarchist writers publicly upbraided women for their intransigent passivity and blamed them for the declining participation of male in anarchist writers working-class women as the of revolutionary but rather as a of the that the revolutionary of their working-class the the of the that anarchists have in the as to of among women the the of the of in anarchist of the to the and of anarchist a topic that not in on Chilean anarchist study anarchist on women and revolution in Chile in the of such as female women’s and as they and in the anarchist and libertarian I on anarchists’ in and the on and in the context of I that the that many working-class at the turn of the a of male on the of anarchist of were their to human Chilean anarchists their for with to prior utopian of men and of the of working-class at the turn of the century, and to that were to a of such as the with the a I and in the to anarchist organization and to Chilean anarchists’ for women’s participation in revolutionary Chilean anarchists’ turn in the to a relatively more with the of which more and from and the Chilean in some in the powerful of and and the of the World the of with after and under the and anarchist into a for in which the for were and the more in is in the of in Chile in the the de Chile a more powerful among in and in which women were the among and which their organization female in anarchist organization from in the were less and libertarian more turn of some anarchist writers to a more in the is not The of such as “You are a lemon” some anarchists’ with their in male for revolutionary and their influence women’s in some anarchist writers of the to women’s revolutionary the of revolution and of working-class in study are the working-class in Santiago and most anarchist was as the translated of and anarchists that circulated in newspapers and pamphlets with the resistance and that the of labor in Chile at the turn of the labor not to the and that the but to the to and education in societies of the As Chilean anarchists considerable after to the of libertarian not among and but in and many and to and labor to about such and anarchist and in libertarian The of anarchist and as as their with foreign have with about the most on the woman question revolutionary as labor is for the that Chilean anarchist it not on anarchist were their working-class male for were anarchist more to the of such among working-class and it to their among the and to a study in the that in anarchist As such are about what she working-class men and but such in working-class about that in turn working-class we in the and of anarchist attention to the woman question some of the of libertarian of female a for and attention to a in the labor as Chilean labor to the woman question for some anarchist in a the of the labor as a on working-class more of the most of anarchist writings is the to which it was male and male anarchist on the woman question were to be and have female as of female participation in anarchist the that women do in the anarchist in the under their The of was a in the Chilean labor among anarchists from and their that their to a such as for a I have but I have of Chilean female to their about “the woman question” may have so in to the and of their about Such not to anarchist to writers rather to the that male anarchists to for working-class women and to women’s in revolutionary is that the anarchist of female passivity and in the were that the was not so for about women as it was a of male anarchists’ through of working-class the turn of the century, a labor which with in the the for a of in As Santiago and Valparaíso as the for and so the working-class labor could for and in the of of the Chilean and for and the of a more labor after the turn of the Chilean in in for recorded in in and in 1918, of were in of to a in that more in Chilean and most of its were in and that the of women many of the women to Santiago at the turn of the as the of the and its women with a more and from the of of that women were men in women in the of and a of in and in and that the of women in the in in the twentieth a of in more from the that and women a third of and that they in and at a of women to of the women of Santiago in prior to in to be in their of women in the after that working-class women in a concern for their participation a to male and and a audience for in in the of in the of the century, as of Chilean first to and and to anarchist of anarchist in Chile and the tides of in libertarian ideology on the of Chilean labor to the of and that carried to the of and in the and twentieth Chilean was through anarchist writings that were translated and first in and in the Chilean labor the and Chilean the and to anarchist and the of anarchist and in Chilean as as of and anarchists such as and of anarchist ideology and was the that and foreign which to Chile from as as and Chilean labor were from foreign anarchist Chile in and de to Chile in and Chilean anarchists’ of not to the of but to the of working-class in Chile at the anarchists and for labor from in of revolutionary and of anarchist the of anarchist that among and in the decade of the century, to of and the of many societies and the proliferation of resistance anarchist the of labor in such as the of that into a anarchist influence from its among and to and as as and was that anarchist ideology influence among organizers of the a in that and with anarchist for was that labor among women and their and resistance societies in the female of and was women, men in and a of the of and leaders after the turn of the organization among women in Santiago and Valparaíso the women’s resistance societies after among and and in the of and to women working in female in of recorded working working and in women’s to anarchist such and with the of revolutionary through that anarchist and such influence on working men and women was not however, to with libertarian and The of organization in Chile and with some anarchist as already with the to the so was the and movement from the to the and was of anarchist that and the of female and and rhetorical to the of female union The movement of more its from anarchist of but on working women’s and a more in female anarchists’ more in the Southern anarchist writers of the turn of the the of women with the of of and The first to female in in in the anarchist publication The their for the anarchist de of to be to the of women in women in its of the working-class woman as and the of the as as a of the she suffers from she is the of The on in to and on the women’s question, the participation of women in such as and a from Rosa for the of women of from anarchist reflects the of anarchists with the woman not to the of female among its but to and women of revolutionary of female were on the of “the the historic of men to women, as and education the the As as from the of anarchist was as a in Chile in the of “the to the of rather women, their and them more on their male male as of the to which was for education not them for but women from male were to and that the of women about a revolution of and the of the of a of male and with optimism about women’s for Chilean anarchist writings about women, the of in the of in Chilean anarchist writings on the woman question that the to female was the of male which anarchist writers were such as and the of male the and of the of and the of its free in the first of El that not be a as it is in which women must their like some of in the men and women and they that as as the that them women’s in the their participation in revolutionary the woman, in the of and of the human anarchist to the of not of in to the that free the of as as the such as and The with from anarchist of was that it men and women in a and that the free of of was not so however, as anarchist to the of working-class of the of attention not to the of on but to its on the of and of is the of the and like in a so that they of they and they at after of they are and of of they on their in The of working-class in and the with of a with a a and a was to a the the of working-class the of the to to the of the working “the is not of the the the and the are the that we it is to and on of women and of and are their to and and to the of our for the and that to their labor at the the The of were the the male that be to the of working men must more and and on of women so that women’s not be in anarchists was not the female it was to working-class to for their and a to and many with the however, Chilean anarchists most the of female the of working writers in the that women’s to in the and at women in and for to which on the women’s most of the of the with the as the you of have more a to and and in life reflects a of the that could be in the working-class at the turn of the were the of their for the poem in the to and to the working-class that for the are not to that in for the that you the at on the is a of the of anarchists’ of revolutionary Chilean anarchists in the to be the in revolutionary and women the were in what in her study of the anarchist of anarchist the and the of the victims under were male The of anarchist writers to the working-class not as victims of male the of women them to the of capital. many to as of growing however, anarchist writers seemed in the of its as a rhetorical in the the of the was to female which the the of for for for women to their historic a and anarchist at the Social and for anarchist for female not to women’s historic but to their for to the of that the of the of the so that she be to as a to male the women as we have already they are to not a on the at the of men and on alone in of you and into the a of female that anarchist from of labor in the The of was not and its but a male in its and on to women in to their and their and to on male to them they were could the a the of anarchist on the woman question in women to and to through and that in anarchist writers to from women’s of and which and the of and the to El the of and among women, the of was woman, be the of the world you to it that of the and of the from their the with which our have to in to you and you be the have you the of our and the to our for some their revolutionary women’s with anarchists’ as the of their from our the to to which of the into which the of labor have in and in with their anarchist she women of the that some anarchist of the women’s for provoked the and they through their participation in the the publication of anarchist writers seemed on of female that women to the of the most of is the of female that in as a of and a the of female as as the for that women to their to the are the of a woman to for in the I the of her life the of the I the I that I was for in the the I not to I the not a with the in human I the but it with a of revolutionary the not I and I I a I of female that seemed to women their were a of the was on the a of free a male and of male passivity in the of the of female in the that men and women could from in with the of the male revolutionary as of free and that some women could greater revolutionary some revolutionary was at and of men and women in the of revolutionary the and anarchist writers women’s for as a and as a for the greater of the working for the woman for woman, the anarchists’ on women’s for of the of after in and and from that their to women, their women’s their through revolutionary anarchist a paradox in anarchist of working-class women to be to them from they were their as and the of their as a writers about women’s revolutionary to their in to and their male of female and women to their with anarchist we we to our on their the of female union participation to women’s to free from the of the I to that there is a to in to of women the that the to I a woman I rather to is and a to women to their in the men to a for women, so that women could be into the movement not but her and that the of the human is in her her you free to of to women’s the of women as the of and that anarchist writings in the writers on female male and to their from of but in so the for of working-class The first such anarchist about the working-class and to anarchist of in on the to women, the of the female Chilean that could not read When the on the to for female the for the anarchist El the for foolish anarchist writers in for the and of their women but and their of for male the of foreign the of from the of of Chilean working-class women’s growing with male in the and but to the female was not for the organization of Chilean was that the was a that could women that in the anarchist that is of attention and it is in with revolutionary but it is they for the for and anarchists was that working-class women more the for that male rather with men in of and which with libertarian is in the to and with the to draw a and working-class the of in anarchist which was of in in anarchists not it but of its and anarchist of not be so with anarchist of women’s revolutionary of the woman the as women joined resistance societies in the and and a of for the of and a poem women to their and in revolutionary on the the of a resistance for and women to the its The of to female participation reflects the many that working-class women were in in labor movement in however, revolutionary women women were less to to the of anarchist newspapers their in de for of the resistance her for working-class in the to the women their of under their women writers relatively to the anarchist was not to for the anarchist that female anarchist leaders a in their the anarchist publication which the of after the in most labor after to women, as from women historic of in Chile and the of on female the on the working and women working in a large were the the from the of anarchists’ with women such to women’s were in anarchist of that such as the of the resistance relatively more about female for female and anarchist more in and after decade was a decade in of anarchist attention to the woman and to female and working-class women’s women’s in their was not the of with and that anarchist leaders to and working-class women for their in revolutionary labor movement of Chile a of and and as and and leaders for working-class and in a of labor and with in that the of the of revolutionary through and of and and anarchists in the union of to and a the the in the of the in as as such as with the of in the of ideology among Chilean the and and the of among and anarchist ideology its as the of working-class after were in the in of the of labor in the of to the greater attention to women and female in rather anarchist after the the of its from and the from the of and to in and women and women’s about a of the at and the concern with female most of the resistance societies of the were in and the the in and for of anarchist their the mixed-sex and some women their and anarchist more working-class women were and was as a Chilean The of the Chilean labor movement some anarchist leaders of a female with which to their them with a for in the of and transformation of union in the for what a and anarchist about the for female in As in the and in Chilean anarchists to the from the to a more on the that the of of anarchist on the woman question in in a of on female participation in the as and women’s for to the female and women’s greater in as and ideology in the on the woman question anarchist that anarchist for the of the to the that in the it is to that for female among anarchists not in the was in most women in the of the in and the the of female and for men and anarchist women under their and foreign female anarchists in to the of the women’s question, on libertarian as they women to for the our as and our and for to the that our and from the to a in the on to as she the of woman have a to she the her her to in she is male their in women’s for revolutionary the of working women and women, their which are so in have for that have on more women from the and have their of which as to the not in the of the from to at in which women were anarchist in anarchist men in on women to their through and they after the in to working women, it is to in of anarchists’ for female and their on of female as of libertarian with anarchists’ of female in the first however, anarchist writers of the were more on the woman with the optimism of that some anarchists female with of their historic at the of men and capital. and female union but a of on women’s to the labor and their to participation in at women and were less with women’s they were with women from rhetorical from a of women as and to of female and in the of on the woman question to have the anarchist the to a Chilean of a of her a on women’s that from anarchist of of women’s historic her of at the of capital and and working-class for their in was not to the of but rather to the and Chilean women in women’s for of the and for the with which women working-class men in the the woman, is from is in that she her on the is to she not that with her are the victims of the blamed for in working-class to to in the minds of women a and a of their to the working-class women with of female and their women could in be they to the attention to men and women the of universal and historic to and to of to of in the to the of anarchist writers of the their with women’s and in was of working-class women more in the of El a of that the of the women to for the of anarchist “You are like a with a on women’s and you are like a that which is of of and The the anarchist on the of female in the women were for their they to have you to are more a you be they the of women the of the to the of the men of their woman in her and and was not she her but in so she with men of her some women’s for and Rosa seemed relatively about Chilean women’s to with men in revolutionary the women the of the that you life among a to the anarchist we the female with such not question anarchist in the to female in as anarchists to from the of the the to the of women’s participation in some of the of anarchists’ growing with women to be in the working-class The first of a to the labor the of female as a for and first to women’s and as the to with which women and the with of its is and there is a to the the from a about the female is the first to for its of female was of female on to women’s passivity to women’s to and to their of was to women to do what they do at a the about their to their a is a to on “the woman question” as a of women’s her about women, in the of the of their I what have you to the but the women about and they they that saying is to it women do not from their they they already and their and The of her the that to such with you to the of you have and and the you and you a you of which you such a is a foolish on its what anarchists of women’s in revolutionary their for and on of women’s a her working women, on them to and what the revolutionary for the of the women as a on their historic to the of the of human such as and a women’s of revolutionary they could female as as it the of anarchist writers at the turn of the to anarchist on the woman question in Chile the from the anarchist a women’s anarchist that circulated to anarchist in was in and its to Chile, were in the union of the in Chilean is the of that most the anarchist of working-class women as The the of a and the of her that they her from “the of a into a and from the of her to be into the of and The with for women’s from her libertarian her however, the passivity of women, she for their in revolutionary I you the with which of you I to you of of of to the of which she a of her among as a female women, in her writings she was less with female with the for women to with anarchist men in their for transformation of anarchist on the woman question from of female to the of the of the declining of anarchist organization among women in twentieth Chile, as as the of a more in the labor movement as a As women’s participation in female resistance societies after the of female into the of women of to their The of anarchist to and was the of for some anarchist in the their with what they as a of female for revolutionary anarchists’ of women as a and their about of male some of libertarian in of to with in anarchist a in of in to the and of working on of women’s which were in turn of the that anarchists to to working women may have to the that anarchists to may have anarchists’ most on such as and in of of working women’s and the of among women in the and the for female through and some for that The of female in mixed-sex the of rhetorical in anarchist in the some of which considerable with anarchist of female from in the women were in anarchist of woman as they were leaders at of female female and in of the of which a male its is the case we the that working-class a of anarchist of female more about the anarchists the question” it about the women such to the case for it be a to the of anarchists’ in of it to women little to do with that in the first anarchists’ and may at some have female in the labor I that was in the the of such anarchist about female to the of Chilean anarchist anarchists revolutionary in of her as and to male such women in the The of women’s participation and in anarchist was in the on female and revolutionary and on its and women’s participation in the revolutionary of the of labor a a on the of the and that to from our of labor and its in working-class and such strategies as and Such a that Chilean on its to the that were always the more of anarchist and about working-class men and working-class The education and of women to anarchist was a for anarchist but not the of a the of the woman question in Chilean labor anarchists with to through of female and the and of libertarian for the working-class of female that in the the and that were to revolutionary on the woman question at in to the of the and of Chilean and not to the of women’s in like to and to the of as as and the from for their is dedicated to the of from are the