Core condensation in heavy halos: a two-stage theory for galaxy formation and clustering

TLDR

Hierarchical clustering of early dark objects shapes the large‑scale galaxy distribution, while galaxy luminosity arises from gas cooling in dark halos, producing concentrated luminous cores whose survival requires substantial dissipation. The paper proposes a two‑stage model in which most cosmic material condensed early into dark objects and, by the present epoch, 80 % of the mass is dark matter with half the remaining gas forming luminous galaxies. The model assumes Ω≈0.2, 80 % dark matter, and that half the residual gas has become luminous galaxies, with hierarchical collapse producing a self‑similar mass spectrum via relaxation. The model reproduces the dark, luminous, and gas fractions in rich clusters, the Universe’s luminosity density, galaxy radii, predicts.

Abstract

We suggest that most of the material in the Universe condensed at an early epoch into small ‘dark’ objects. Irrespective of their nature, these objects must subsequently have undergone hierarchical clustering, whose present scale we infer from the large-scale distribution of galaxies. As each stage of the hierarchy forms and collapses, relaxation effects wipe out its substructure, leading to a self-similar distribution of bound masses of the type discussed by Press & Schechter. The entire luminous content of galaxies, however, results from the cooling and fragmentation of residual gas within the transient potential wells provided by the dark matter. Every galaxy thus forms as a concentrated luminous core embedded in an extensive dark halo. The observed sizes of galaxies and their survival through later stages of the hierarchy seem inexplicable without invoking substantial dissipation; this dissipation allows the galaxies to become sufficiently concentrated to survive the disruption of their halos in groups and clusters of galaxies. We propose a specific model in which |$\Omega \simeq 0.2$|⁠, the dark matter makes up 80 per cent of the total mass, and half the residual gas has been converted into luminous galaxies by the present time. This model is consistent with the inferred proportions of dark matter, luminous matter and gas in rich clusters, with the observed luminosity density of the Universe and with the observed radii of galaxies; further, it predicts the characteristic luminosities of bright galaxies and can give a luminosity function of the observed shape.