The opponent-process theory of acquired motivation: The costs of pleasure and the benefits of pain.

TLDR

Repeated exposure to reinforcers produces affective contrast, habituation, and withdrawal, generating new motives that drive operant behavior across domains such as addiction, love, and aversion. The article presents the opponent‑process theory of newly acquired motives and reviews recent empirical tests of the theory. The theory is grounded in empirical laws that link stimulus quality, intensity, duration, and inter‑presentation intervals to the development of new motives.

Abstract

When an unconditioned stimulus, a reinforcer, or an innate releaser is repeatedly presented to human or animal subjects, three major affective phenomena are often observed. First, one often sees affective or hedonic contrast. Second, frequent repeti- tion of the unconditioned stimulus, reinforcer, or innate releaser often gives rise to affective or hedonic habitu- ation (tolerance). Finally, after frequent repetition of these stimuli, a withdrawal or abstinence syndrome often emerges directly following stimulus termination. These affective dynamics of organismicall y important stimuli generate new motives, new opportunities for reinforcing and energizing operant behaviors, based on the hedonic attributes of withdrawal or abstinence syndromes. This article describes the opponent-process theory of such new or experientiall y produced motives and discusses recent research testing the theory. The theory attempts to account for such diverse acquired motives as drug addiction, love, affection and social attachment, and cravings for sensory and aesthetic ex- periences (cases in which the initial reinforcers are posi- tive) and for such acquired motives as parachuting, jog- ging and marathoning, sauna bathing, and a variety of self-administered, aversive stimuli like electric shocks (cases in which the initial reinforcers are negative). The empirical laws governing the establishment of these new motives are described. Crucial variables include the quality, intensity, and duration of each stimulus presentation and the time intervals between presenta-