The Patron as Poet Maker: The Politics of Benefaction

Abstract

ThePatronasPoetMaker:The PoliticsofBenefaction BETTYRIZZO .E/ighteenth-centuryliterarypatronageofthetraditionalpatron-client kindwasgenerallyonthewanethroughoutthecentury,thesingle princelypatronyieldingtothemoremodestandoccasionalpatronageof thededicationandsubscriptionlistsponsors.1Butthetraditionalrela- tionshipcontinuedstrongbetweenpatronsandthenatural,working- class,orpatronizedpoets,thelastatermaccurateintwosenses.2The eighteenth-centurywasaheydayforthesepoetsforseveralreasons. Laborers'childrenatlastlearnedtoreadandwriteandsocouldboth composeandinditeversesiftheychose;buttheywerenotreadersofthe educationalcurriculumandthereforetheverseswhichtheywrotepos- sessedanaive,seeminglyspontaneousquality.Contemporarytheoriesof originalgeniussuggested(erroneously)thatsuchprimitivepoetsmight recoverthefireofHomer,andthereforeascientificattentionwas directedtowardthem,accompaniedbyanunscientificwillingnesstobe astonishedbytheiroriginality.3Anaturalpoetprovidedalaboratoryin whichcouldbeseparated,itwasthought,theeffectsofnaturalgenius fromtheeffectsofeducationorart.Thenagain,theincreasingcomplex- ityofcivilizedlifepromptedanincreasingsentimentalityaboutthesim- plelifethatelevatedthepopularityofpastoralformsandnaturalpoets. Finally,andnotleastimportant,thoughthesepoetshadapotentially revolutionaryfunction—intendedtodemonstratethesuperiorityof 241 242 / rizzo natureandHomeroverneo-Augustantradition,theyusuallyproduced insteadanassurance,comfortingtotheestablishmentatleast,ofthe superiorityofart,Dryden,andPope. Somanyincitementsforturningattentiontowardanewnaturalpoet meantthatthediscoveryofaninterestingnewspecimenwasattendedby anéclatnotdisagreeabletowould-bepatrons.Thesepoetsweresohum- ble,somuchlessresourcefulandindependent,altogethermoretractable, thansuchpersonagesasPopeandJohnson.Infacttheymadesplendid householdpetswhocouldfawninwords.Itwasscarcelyofconsequence totheirpatronsthat,confinedtoeternalgratitude,theywereeffectually muzzled,incapableofdevelopingtheirownvoices.Byjudiciously encouraginganaturalpoet,patronscouldexerttheirpower,exercise theirsuperiority,amusethemselves,doacharitableandfinething, improvetheworld,advancescience,andattesttotheirowntasteand moralelevation.Whilebetter-knownwritersexcoriatedpatronage,the naturalpoetsexhaustedtheirbreathcelebratingit.Theyupheldthe ancientorder:theyknewtheirplaces—whichwereaslowastheplacesof poetsoughttobe;andtheykissedfeet.Buttherewasanotherlessobvi- ousservicetheycouldrendersomepatrons:theycouldadvertisethe needlessnessofaclassicaleducationtoapoet. Manyofthesepatronizedpoetswerecompetent;noneofthem— exceptRobertBurns—wasevenarguablyofthefirstrank.Theywere interestingintermsoftheirsubjectmatter,theirattitudestothemselves andtheirwriting,theirconflictsabouttheirplacesintheworld.Iexam- inefourofthemhereinrelationtotheirpatrons,inordertosuggestfirst thatthereputationsofthesepoetsdependedupontheeffortsoftheir patrons,andthatthepositionofthepatroninmostcasescorrelated positivelywiththefameofthesponsoredpoet.Inthecaseofsomepoets whoweretransferredupwardfrompatrontopatron,likeStephenDuck orMaryLeapor,famecorrespondedwiththatofthefinal,grandest patron.Inotherwords,thepatronliterallymadethepoet. Take,forinstance,thefollowinglistofsomenaturalpoetsroughly rankedaccordingtothefameoftheirpatrons.Thecorrelationofthe fameofthepoetwiththefameofthepatronis(againroughly)positive: Wiltshirepatrons StephenDuck,theThresher QueenCaroline Poet1705-56 1683-1737 LordChesterfield HenryJones,theIrish 1694-1773 Bricklayer1721-70 ThePatronasPoet-Maker/243 WilliamShenstone 1714-63 George, Lord Lyttelton 1709-73 EdwardandElizabeth Montagu,ca.1692-1775 1718-1800 HannahMore(andcircle) 1745-1833 BridgetFreemantle SamuelRichardson(and circle)1689-1761 Robert Southey 1774-1843 Capel Lofft 1751-1824 SamuelJacksonPratt 1749-1814 SirArchibaldMacdonald Att.Gen.,M.P.1747-1826 BishopThomasPercy 1729-1811 FrancesAnnaWallaceDunlop 1730-1815 Rev.JohnCondor Rev.JohnWalkerof Norwich Bertie Greatheed 1759-1826 AgroupofPetersfield patrons Noneknown JamesWoodhouse,the Poetical Shoemaker 1735-1820 AnnYearsley,theBristol Milkwoman1752-1806 Mary Leapor 1722-46 John Jones 1774-? RobertBloomfield 1766-1823 JosephBlacket,theCobbler 1786-1810 JohnFrederickBryant,the ClayPipemaker1753-1791 JaneWest,farmer'swife 1758-1813 JanetLittle,theScottish Milkmaid1759-1813 SusannaHarrison,servant 1752-1784 ElizabethBently 1767-1839 ElizabethHands,servant fl. 1789 MaryCollier,the Washerwoman16797-1763 JohnFreeth,alehousekeeper fl. 1790s 244 / rizzo ThusJohnFreeth,"PoetFreeth....anale-housekeeperofBirming- ham,theauthorofaconsiderablenumberofdemocratica!squibs,"publishedabookthatpassedintoanumberofeditionsbuthadnopatron . Asaresult,whenWilliamGodwinwasinBirminghamandsawFreeth's likenessinwaxwork,hiscuriositywasaroused—buthehadneverbefore heardofFreeth—andneitherhavewe.4Typicallythesepoetsweredis- coveredbylocalpatrons,whichsuggeststhatwheretherewerenolikely patrons,suchpoetsmightwellliveanddievirtuallyunknown.The patronsdiscoveredthepoets,frequentlysawtheirworksthroughpress, androusedsubscribersandfriends. Mysecondandmoreimportantpointisthatthesepoetswereoften usedbytheirpatronsfortheirownpurposes.Therelationshipof StephenDuck—firstinthelineofeighteenth-centurypatronizedpoets andmostcelebrated—withhispatronQueenCarolineisnotevencom- prehensiblewithoutreferencetoCaroline'searlierrelationshipwith Pope.PopehadbeenafrequentvisitortoLeicesterHouseduringthe reignofGeorgeIandafriendtoCaroline,yethewasnotareliable friend;hisfriendship,likehiswitandhispoetry,oftenhadastingtoit. GeorgeIIandCarolineascendedthethronein1727;in1728therewere disquietinghintsagainstthemintheoriginalDunciadofthatyear(here- afterTheDunciadVariorum),inwhichQueenDulnesshasmovedher seattocourt.GeorgehaddispleasedPopebyretaining—undertheinflu- enceofCaroline—hisfather'sminister,Walpole.Thusappeared innocent-seemingverses,referringtoDryden'slineofdunces,which obviouslyreferaswelltothelineofHanoveriankings: Sayfromwhatcause,invaindecry'dandcurst, StillDuncethesecondreignslikeDuncethefirst?5 She[Dulness]sawwithjoythelineimmortalrun, Eachsireimprestandglaringinhisson.(1:97-98) Ofpantomimes, Thydragons**and***shalltaste, Andfromeachshowrisedullerthanthelast.6(3:299-300) TheseinnuendoescouldscarcelyhavepleasedtheintellectualCaroline, thefriendandprotegeeofLeibniz.InpartPopeimpugnedhermorals,in parthertaste,inpartherjudgmentsoinferiortothatofhimself,a classically-readpoetstandingontheshouldersoftheAncients.Caroline's patronageofStephenDuckwasarejoinderwell-calculatedandstinging: naturalgeniuswassuperiortoartandeducation.HerpatronageofDuck, thebrilliantexploitationofanaccidentalopportunity,servedbothtopro- ThePatronasPoet-Maker/245 videafashionablemodelforfuturepatronsandtoperpetuateherquarrel withPope.Hewastocapitalizeuponhertasteinpoetsfurthertoestablish herdullness;shewastoheapbenefitsonDucktoshowhowcomplaisance combinedwithtruegeniuswasrewarded. WhenDuck'spoetrywasreadtoCarolineatWindsorinSeptember 1730,sheatonceseizedheropportunity.SamuelJohnsonnotedthatshe patronizedDuckwithanuncommonardor,"andincitedacompetition amongthosewhoattendedthecourt,whoshouldmostpromotehis interest,andwhoshouldfirstofferasubscription."7Duck'sWiltshire patronDr.AluredClarke—soontoberewardedbyroyalpatronage— thought"thethresher,withallhisdefects,asuperiorgeniustoMr. Pope."8Popeheardandbidedhistime.AtcourtDuckwasproclaimed bymanytobethegreatestpoetoftheage.ItwaswhatCarolinewanted tohear.Apartfromalltheotheradvantages—suchasthepunishmentof Popeandtheexaltationoftheonlykindofgeniussheherselfcould possess—shecouldbevirtuallyassuredofDuck'scontinuingdocility.He knewhisrole;JosephSpencewroteofhim,"Heseemsasyetnottobe hurtatallbyanyApplausesthathavebeengivenhim,andtohavebeen perfectlycontentedwithhisConditionbefore....Hewasnotliftedup withtheCharactersomePeoplegaveofhim,andtalk'dofFameabso- lutelylikeaPhilosopher."9Carolinegavehim£30ayear—abargainof beneficenceyetmorethantwicehisearningsasathresher—asmallhouse atRichmond,andunremittingpatronage. CarolinesentPopeDuck'spoemsforhisopinion,andheevadedher trapbydeliveringanhonestpoeticjudgment:hesupposedthatmost villagescouldsupplyversesofthesameforce.10Inaddition,hewrote Gay,"Heisaharmlessman,andthereforeIamglad.""Havingdemon- stratedhisunpurchaseablejudgmentandhisgenerouslackofspite,he andhisfriendsarrangedforthepublicationintheGrub-streetJournalof 19November1730ofanessayinwhichacountryclown,topfullof poetry,crownedwithagarlandofvineleaf,laurel,andcabbage,ispubliclyacclaimed : Allhail,arch-poetwithoutpeer! Vine,bay,orcabbagefittowear, Andworthyoftheprince'sear. Morefollows,butonepointinparticularisworthremarking.Theessay's authorfoundtheRoyalBountyparticularlycommendableforsettling Duck'ssalaryonhimforlife,adding"Andithathbeenthepracticeof ourPrinces,nevertoremovefromthestationofPoetLaureateanyman whohathoncebeenchosen,tho'neversogreaterGenius'smightarisein 246 / rizzo histime.Anobleinstance,howmuchthecharityofourmonarchshath exceededtheirloveoffame."12 TheGrub-streetJournaldidnotspareDuckthereafter,denyinghim forinstanceevennaturaltalentinaparodyofhisworksignedby"Hob- binolLubbin,"whoconfesseshismuselessstate: I,adullSwain,haveleftmyplough. Withouttheirhelptotrythebays; Norneedyouwondermuchtoknow Whatcou'dpossessmyheadwithlays.... Ingeniouswantcanteachusall, Whatsparingnaturehasdeny'd.13 ThegreatfearofPopeandhisfriendswasthatDuckwouldbemade laureate,anelectionatonetimeseriouslyconsidered. Duckremainedaperfectlyabjectpoettotheend,notonlyexaltinghis patronsbutalsoroutinelyabasinghimself.Hisearlypoem"The Shunamite"endswiththelamentthathecannothonorhislocalpatron withaworkontheMessiah: ButinMessiah'sCauseIcan'tproceed, LestwhenIstrivetopraisehim,Idegrade.MyFate,unkind,compelsmetobemute, BecauseofLearningIamdestitute; BywhichnoThought,tho'wellconceiv'd,canrise TofullPerfection,butinEmbryodies.... ThusintheCountryoftenhaveIfound, (Thro'slothfulMan'sneglect)aPlatofGround Wasteanduncultivated,voidofSeeds, ProducingnothingbuttherankestWeeds. ButwhystandImyFateaccusingso? TheFieldcallsmetoLabour,Imustgo. TheCowlowsafterMeat;thehungrySteed, Neighing,complainshewantshisusualFeed. Then,SIR,adieu!Acceptwhatyoudidcrave, AndbepropitioustoyourhumbleSlave. UsemayhavemadeDuckmorefacile,butheknewwhenhepossessed theappositeagriculturalmetaphor.Inhisdedicationof1736hetoldthe Queenofhispoems,"YourMajestyhasindeedthesameRighttothem, asyouhavetotheFruitsofaTree,whichyouhavetransplantedoutofa barrenSoilintoafertileandbeautifulGarden.ItwasyourGenerosity ThePatronasPoet-Maker/247 whichbroughtmeoutofObscurity,andstillcondescendtoprotectme; liketheSupremeBeing,whocontinuallysupportsthemeanestCreature, whichhisGoodnesshasproduc'd."Flatterycouldgonofurtherthanto compareCarolinetotheDeity. InreturnCarolinemadeDuckaYeomanoftheGuardin1733and marriedhimtoherhousekeeperatKew;in1735shemadehimkeeperof herlibraryatRichmond—Merlin'sCave—anodd,thatchedbuilding withsixwaxworkfiguresofMerlinandhissecretary,QueenElizabeth andthequeenofHenryVII,andtwocharactersfromAriostogrouped aroundatable.14Asaresult,Popecontinuedtofailincivility.Inthe 1742NewDunciadheintroducedanumberofnewgibesatbothCaroline (deadin1737)andGeorge,including Hold—totheMinisterImoreincline; Toservehiscause,OQueen!isservingthine.15 Mayyou,mayCam,andIsispreachitlong! TheRIGHTDIVINEofKingstogovernwrong.1«(4:187-88) AluredClarke,whoinsotimelyafashionreportedtheWiltshireconsensusthatDuckwrotebetterpoetrythanPope ,issupposedtohavebeen suggestedintheline"OrvestdullFlatt'ryinthesacredGown,"17inwhich thatpatronwhowouldrewarddullflattery—notanunjustassessmentof Clarke'spoetictaste—isalsoindicted.AsfortheearlofMacclesfield, whohadthehonorofintroducingDuck'sversestoCaroline'searonthat Septemberdayin1730atWindsor,heisamongthosewhomthemusesof Opera"warbleround," Andemptyheadsconsolewithemptysound. Nomore,alas!thevoiceofFametheyhear, ThebalmofDulnesstricklingintheirear.(4:541-44) Onceagainthelinesareanappositerevengeforthatoccasiononwhich Macclesfieldfacilitatedthecourt'stransferenceofadmirationfromPope to Duck. AsforCaroline,Popehadbeenlesstender.Onherdeathin1737ofa mortification,hewrote Herelieswraptupinfortythousandtowels TheonlyproofthatC****hadbowels.18 Caroline'spatronage,notbestowedforthepurestofmotives,established bothDuck'sfameandthevogueforpatronizedpoets.Carolinelostthis 248 / rizzo battlebutwonthewar.Herjudgmentwasridiculed:"Stephenwasan excellentBardasaThrasher,butastheCourtPoet,andrivalofPope, detestable,"wroteHannahMorein1784.19ButDuckhadmadethe wholequestionofnaturalgenius,asopposedtoartandlearning,fash- ionable,andtheresultingruminationseventuallyestablishedPopeas onlythebestofthecultivatedpoetsofanartificialage.20Caroline'staste forDuckfinallytranspiredinaseriousinfluenceontheLyricalBallads andthereforevirtuallyhelpedtoannulthepopulartasteforPope. AsforDuck,hisconsistentlytamedependence,hisrefusaltobecome spoiled,proud,fondoffame,orcriticalofhispatrons,persisted,and afterCaroline'sdeathherdisconsolatehusbandcontinuedtoheaponthe benefits:DuckwasmadechaplainoftheDragoonGuards,priest, preacheratKew,andrectorofByfleet,Surrey.Buthegrewdepressed andin1756,agedfifty...