Pheromones and Parapheromones in the Control of Tephritids

Abstract

The complex lives of tephritids are mediated by a variety of chemical cues. Those involved with feeding, host location, mating, and oviposition have been used in control. Feeding--recent work suggests that tropical adult fruit flies feed for the most part on leaf surface bacteria. New attractants based on bacteria and their by-products may soon be available. Host location--host odors, colors and shapes can attract flies and are presently used in integrated pest management. These stimuli are frequently added to traps baited with sexual pheromone and parapheromones. Mating--males, particularly in lekking species, release pheromones that attract both males and virgin females. These compounds are produced in a morphologically broad range of glands. Parapheromones are compounds, often originally derived from plants, that attract sexually mature males and more rarely, females. Their role in fruit fly bionomics is unknown, though they may coincidentally resemble pheromones or be pheromone precursors. The principal uses of sex attractants have been in male eradication and monitoring; however, in the future they may also be useful in quality control. Oviposition--females in a number of pestiferous species mark oviposition sites with a pheromone that discourages egg laying by subsequent females. Chemical identification of these substances has proved difficult, but field trials suggest that they may be used to protect fruit crops.