Toward Transpacific Ecopoetics: Three Indigenous Texts

Abstract

In this article, I employ “the Pacific” as a contact zone, method, and concept with which to examine the dynamic, shifting relationship between land and sea that allows indigenous literature in the transpacific context to engage all of its ecopoetic complexity. The Pacific is the largest oceanic divide on earth. In recent years, issues around global capitalism, national identity, community, and the ecology of the Pacific region have sparked intriguing and provocative discussions. Research along these lines celebrates the networking and coalition activities of various groups of people in the Pacific, and highlights the circulation of ideas and cultures that I believe to be crucial to contemporary ecological scholarship. It offers an oceanic perspective that serves as a counterweight to continental ways of thinking, and it supplements or challenges transnational approaches to imperialism, postcolonialism, indigeneity, globalization, and ecology.1A recent special issue of the Contemporary Pacific titled “Native Pacific Cultural Studies on the Edge” examines uncharted spaces of the Pacific Islands and historicizes indigenous discourses about making landfall, showing how they have contested the production of new transoceanic environments. The articles in this special issue “explore notions of Pacific indigeneity as they circulate through geographical, cultural, political, and historical flows of people(s), things, knowledge, power—between islands and continents.”2 As the United States and China battle over this geographical space, the message from the indigenous Pacific can be inspiring: neighboring communities have always exchanged ideas and products, often across vast oceanic distances. It was a large world in which indigenous people intermingled along numerous interconnecting routes, unhindered by the boundaries erected much later by imperial powers. Indeed, the recent wave of research on transnational Pacific indigeneity has contributed significantly to the study of both the environment and literature. For instance, Elizabeth M. Deloughrey's Routes and Roots: Navigating Caribbean and Pacific Island Literatures (2010) moves beyond restrictive national, colonial, and regional frameworks, highlighting how island histories are shaped by oceanic environments. Engaging oceanic literary studies in a sustained dialogue, Deloughrey borrows Kamau Brathwaite's idea of “tidalectic” between land and sea as a dynamic starting point by which to identify a nexus of historical process and seascape, intertwining geography and history in her exploration of how island writers inscribe the complex relation between routes and roots.3I conceptualize the contours of indigenous communities as crossing national, regional, and international boundaries, and I formulate a platform on which to carry out a cross-cultural comparison of indigenous ecopoetics across the Pacific. I aim to offer an alternative rubric of the “transindigenous” for the study of literature and the environment and to represent center-to-center, indigenous-to-indigenous relationships and connections in the Pacific as a site of transindigenous solidarity that seeks to protect oceanic environments.Chadwick Allen's essay “A Transnational Native American Studies? Why Not Studies that are Trans-Indigenous?” challenges us to think beyond “the national borders of contemporary (settler) nation-states” and to focus on indigenous-to-indigenous relationships instead. He reminds us that conventional theories of the transnational operate on a “vertical binary” that subordinates indigenous peoples. As we work toward a new model, which Allen calls “transindigenous,” we need to treat indigenous texts “on their own complex and evolving terms.”4 I move toward a transpacific and transindigenous ecopoetics that promises to preserve an ocean and offer a vision of transnational belonging, ecological confederation, and indigenous solidarity. Drawing on Linda Hogan's 2008 People of the Whale (fictionalized Makah, North American West Coast), Witi Ihimaera's 1987 Whale Rider (Maori, New Zealand/Aotearoa), and Syaman Rapongan's 2012 天空的眼睛 (Eyes in the Sky) (Aboriginal Taiwan Tao), I convene a shared oceanic poetics across diverse indigenous cultures in the Pacific region. Like the rooted and routed indigenous people of the Pacific, these works begin in salt water and subsurface earth and aquifers and trace ecological connections across the waters. A transpacific and transindigenous ecopoetics bring to the fore an alternative model of reckoning space, place, and time that requires active, participatory engagement with the Pacific seascapes while simultaneously necessitating a planetary consciousness. All three authors navigate a course that is by the of and All a of of rooted routes, of a and is or by poetics and I on a of and oceanic and in the of ecopoetics rooted in the indigenous and of the Pacific. works the national, and borders erected by the between the and the to which these works in with this the shared history of the Pacific indigenous and their complex historical relationships to the and to the this a of that of on the ecological of the Pacific and which are in and that are over islands and of to their The of the Pacific the site for from to with the of history and The ocean to of national or and as a planetary to and “the ocean the to ecological in that and an of and is a that “the be for the ocean as a shared planetary that of with as “the ocean calls for planetary reckoning as and and for a of that various of are to be as a planetary that notions of and on a and planetary is often through the concept of a planetary that is on the of the environment as as on of to and ecological The three indigenous texts in this the Pacific as a site of and across boundaries and and authors the Pacific as a planetary and oceanic as a that the ocean a and a of Pacific Pacific by the of that the spaces are to and national In in and the of of ecological solidarity across the Pacific as calls and ecological and in the Pacific and New through the of the is around work and studies of the of production in and the Pacific. In for a of study studies to both Native American transnational of transindigenous and to a contemporary with oceanic of study has the to to the and this island as a to the Pacific In on these oceanic the work of from Island site of in the and a of and I that through their own as as that of their island and of as a through which they can the lines by powers. Pacific a of as in with as of the sea out to people in the of the for the of all Rapongan's work an region in the Pacific, Taiwan as a to of space, and the A of islands in The a on the their own sea and the sea of neighboring they are in of the and for the ocean or in of the from their Rapongan's to move in the Pacific the of the that are to the of the on the of the North Pacific the in and the of the island of the the Pacific of their environment as an that the of the The of on the a of people on the and their and on the of the this that both and the Pacific, the the of an in of of the and vast ocean of three or about or for and they a the course of the toward the sea of in the the perspective of the time their have the of and their and to and to the of they are the that us with and we to we be with as and to the The of the connections between the and the represent the that was to the from their The of in the between the and and are in the of ecological as in Rapongan's The the a about how in the out of the ocean and on the the about their diverse this the of the how to how to and how to offer to and between and the of Rapongan's 天空的眼睛 (Eyes in the in which the between and ecology and the of a the large world of “the as or In essay the examines the in as by about relationships with As by and that both and indigenous are as of their and as the boundaries between the of and indigenous and “the boundaries of the and of and on in for an of the relationship between and indigenous in contemporary I that and indigenous are for contemporary they are by to be as or indigenous with in of their and the of and the of The as from the of from The between and an between and The was a time the boundaries between and the is by the of the The between an and cultures is that the from while the and for for a are the between and between and the a from a and between from as it is and is by their The between and a between and the to a to the As the of is an that is by as Allen it is crucial that studies of the indigenous the of “the to the which in of the and of by the and of their their their and It is crucial to think and to the indigenous as a new and a new As Allen this new and that has in the Native and the indigenous of the Pacific. to this to the indigenous of the The is As the indigenous texts I examine in this the of both and as transindigenous a center-to-center, indigenous-to-indigenous these a from we from a around the and transpacific of the and of and and in the the of the sea ecology with a of a that the through the In The Whale Witi the of how on the of a In People of the Native American Linda the of the in to in the connections to the and the in which they and in the ocean on the between land and and the boundaries of In all these and ocean and represent a the of which the of and from All three authors the sea as All three an and an ecopoetics that the and of the Pacific ecology and that the historical and between and environment and and and a in the and the between and sea in the of In of these the of the is the between the and is and to and are to center-to-center, indigenous-to-indigenous and these center-to-center, indigenous-to-indigenous a The between the and ocean the communities of the waters. The the and is in the of a calls for to that us The to an is to the is with the of with of as and in to the of or which is have to in the of with and “the of and their contemporary with to the about the of and in the of the of and in of a over a or from of from and the of new of in which and to as and along the of the an idea by we the of in we that is always a contact the is in the is and from thinking, which all the world as a of by and with thinking, which is to I move beyond with study contact lines from have or and between and the of the of the of an that the relationship of ocean to that we are “the of by People of the a world of and In this on the Pacific the people have about the to the on the The ocean is a It is a move they the sea the the is an out of the sea and in the The to identify it as of the three sea sea and that in and by The people the they and is the of the and the of the the of the sea for and a of about the ocean an all sea He with the and with her with the 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the they a to is their the to the ocean and has as a that they from their the The the Native American for the both and people trace their to the the of the with and to in the ocean for of is a the contact between land and sea and the of the and are and to represent the relationship between and these that are by and the people their with the of the the of a as it is are its of the and that is the as by and her in the that was the and the are As is the in the the of the of as a of by in that they of of course was the the with the The of in a that is a the land the a history of in the and has a an of an between the and the is the as the the the on the of and the a that is an of In her on the the their in The on the of in the Pacific the a for of the in to the of the by the the of this of an a that a of the it “the the is and to the sea with In their titled and how they the along the Pacific their the context of to between and the and we the of and with the shaped by and of the complex of the as and in the Native American and indigenous have their the of of the of and sea of between people and and as to Hogan's have as the the of ecological As the and of people calls to how the of a of and are shaped by political, and of the Whale how indigenous communities with issues that their relationship to the for a that and of in the of their the be the their the from the the are of the of a of people to the sea and its as a on the a has the that the their by the of that the the and of of and on the that the people have to the through and a of her to the that the need to and are numerous to be of the is about the between and their and about the world to the world through and in which as a As the the are all which us to and new in global the as Hogan's about the of the of work and a of between of and of calls on to of the ecological that the of a the from the perspective of a and toward histories in the of a in a with and sea with and sea are a of In a or a in its over the between and the to of to as “the by is a of to and we on The as the by which we her ecological in and through her ecopoetics of the as Ihimaera's ecopoetics on the as The Whale Rider with the of a to the sea was with have and I have the of the The A A sea as it through the a in its water and from that the that the as it was a He was to the The water from and to in the “the of and as from the perspective of a the of an the on which of and can be on the of Like a the from the subsurface and to in the to the island as the of this the and in and from the of the and the and and The that the and the large sea world is with to an in the of is with the Pacific of in which is of a that the divide between and and The Whale the of the as of the of contemporary and its to the the to navigate the Pacific, from to the islands in the and the for the that the to engage in and an The how the of the was by The was by a and with the in connections between the and and of and that the between and the the of the and the of to to “the islands to the The is an on which the and of people are The the to land and the In this the has from the island of the “the of to the new to it The ocean of the and the of the Pacific The of the Pacific was For both and in The Whale the is and the with the they shared as they the between and in this is to the in Linda Hogan's on how with the and of the sea that all in Like Hogan's this around and The of the over from ocean and while the ocean the of the and the is of the of the on the and in this to the in the Pacific the as an and in on the of the The from the of the in to the relationship between the and its and a world was the to and with the the special powers. For instance, was to to and to In this and in with a of and the He to As in to a through the of the In the of the world that believe in and that believe The and the The and the The and the The and the He a between both and on was and on the was the and that In a the the that connections between and and how that has over the The has a as the their for from of the from the of it always the He a time the between and and their and of in People of the and in The Whale Rider in the of of and and of to with sea to the of with the of the ocean and of the with the was the the ocean and the it through a of as a to and a model of with the in and As Allen the has in of a in He that this has as a of and that has to in their and their and to and for is the in the from her is her her with the to for The are for the her about how the of people to their to with the sea a of on the the largest its and the of the to the on the as it the the of the the boundaries between and in a of to the of and which to or to the as in their to a of of they to all as people the between and the and the between land and and all an between her and their to of the the and the this of as a which is a to a or an the dynamic between land and between cultures and the between and to the seascapes or oceanic ecology that the to the to the world to the of the Pacific. the Pacific ecology and the Pacific a of diverse and through the a of to the a The ocean was with and the of the and we the dynamic, and of the Pacific, its and the of sea and as through the of the The the of that transoceanic through and that the the ocean and bring the to All these are to the of and have a that Allen as is a of and the of all in the has a the and and and The in as a of and a of the of in the In the of indigenous and of the Pacific the of with the to Hogan's with and sea on their the between and ocean in The Whale Rider in the as as in its the of and and in and The between indigenous people and this a transpacific model of about the large of the Pacific. of and to to their oceanic which is of the He Island was a to for while in the as an in the of the of which the was the the of on with the work of and Rapongan's work and the issues of sea to the of the and by the of the Pacific the people for as an with their ecological from the environment of their the over China in the to In the they and the for a on the all the in their and has to this ocean on of and the has a model of ecological The people between and with are by shifting and of and are three for and the as to the ocean and the of the waters. The a of reckoning time on the of the and The and the to their as an is from the for their and and the and as for and their and their of the of that their to the The a of the relationship with the their the for connections between the the and their in the people these of and ecological on their in the recent ecological and for the ocean ecology in works as and of the In all these of the the and the world of the Pacific. was by through and and through activities as and a large of the ocean ecology by He a Pacific of and an for the ocean and through a for as the in the He with a in which is through a the The on the between and a a that in the to on the ocean and the of the water are I to a is of ecological The and the between the and of and contact with a through the a to the and the The a beyond the time of is and the to the to through a that the of the ocean is to of the a vision of the that in The Whale along with is and in the In of the a planetary the the and has and of is that I I have a or work to be of much to on the sea with the and I to be by The ocean is is The the on and to The on the The in the from to large the of the of the large by and to a world of the and to the which allows to In this both and the and a as by the a of the that in of to the and of and a world in which to to and an that the relationship between ocean and The “the of by the ocean and and be The the world of the ocean in an of of out of the and I was by or was a of large and that was the of was the wave that I was to on I out to of and of of out of the and for a and the sea and all and The and are to the with as of the and as and for have the to in the of as and as and Rapongan's can be as an of Pacific as a an of sea The of a battle in while the in the of the the which both and or The have in in the the offer to as of a It is in that that out to sea to the of the the people the and to for the to along with the The water that the and in a of that in the as they out their sea and in these on ecological to a the of by as an that the relationship between and and this the with the of an the and of own to the to in the the of how routes of in the Pacific the of as a of the “the which in the in a that and sea and of the of and in and and and a of a time and both and the the of the to a on the to a vision of a the of how to out and that a be between and as to and to the the and in the a geography and In all a to us to the of it is the of the people how to the The have a by the and a that to ocean and He in a the from an a of planetary can the to of the poetics is an and to In The Whale the the The their by the and on the of the to that the can through while simultaneously a to the of the the can be a for Rapongan's or poetics as a and of poetics is on of and knowledge, which from the communities of the Pacific the the to the of an out Like The Whale in the is the of the and the is the of the The and the which an battle between the and and a large Rapongan's of an toward ecological and planetary and both the and the in sustained is be and out of and relationships the ocean the the the and and history the of The ocean serves as a site for the of transpacific to a ecopoetics of place, and indigenous authors the ocean in their can as a for and regional and for and a transpacific texts in the transpacific context us to and the and the The three writers in this an Pacific their knowledge, and across and and and toward coalition and across the Pacific and the are the as in the ecological of the contemporary from a that the connections between and for for and the on which for The of ecopoetics rooted in indigenous and the and in the oceanic The dynamic, shifting relationship between and is the on which much of transpacific indigenous literature how indigenous in the transpacific context the between and and contemporary of and In the transpacific Linda Witi and Syaman sea as of the as the in and are much in the indigenous The ocean the from which In the oceanic that which beyond the world and texts an vision of the and the for a of the relationship to the ocean and oceanic an that a context of a and these transpacific we can the of and and sea in Pacific indigenous these works us the Pacific as a site of transindigenous solidarity while the of and in an of the Pacific, of for and as as ocean and us that these and these can planetary The of as in transpacific indigenous beyond the of and the divide between and and in a vision of ecological and transindigenous and solidarity. relationships have and have much to offer to contemporary and